Illuminating the Dark Ages: Pupil Dilation as a Measure of Expectancy Violation Across the Life Span

Mainly for methodological reasons, little is known about the course of development of early cognitive competencies diagnosed with the violation of expectation (VoE) method in infants. The goal of this research was to evaluate the use of pupillometry as a unified approach to assess expectancy violations during and beyond the “dark ages” between 1 and 3 years. We tested children aged 1–6 years and adults (N = 279) with pictures of animals combined with matching or mismatching animal sounds. All age groups exhibited significantly greater pupil dilation in mismatched than matched trials. We conclude that pupillometry is a viable alternative to the VoE method that, by contrast to the latter, can be used throughout the life span.     

Knowledge protection strategies of multinational firms—A cross-country comparison

International knowledge spillovers, especially through multinational companies (MNCs), have recently been a major topic of discussion among academics and practitioners. Most research in this field focuses on knowledge sharing activities of MNC subsidiaries. Relatively little is known about their capabilities for protecting valuable knowledge from spilling over to host country competitors. We extend this stream of research by investigating both formal protection strategies (e.g. patenting) as well as strategic ones (secrecy, lead time, complex design). We conceptualize the breadth of firm's knowledge protection strategies and relate it to the particular situation of MNC subsidiaries. Moreover, we argue that their approaches differ with regard to host country challenges and opportunities. We address these issues empirically, based on a harmonized survey of innovation activities of more than 1800 firms located in Portugal and Germany. We find evidence that MNCs prefer broader sets of knowledge protection strategies in a host country with fewer opportunities for knowledge sourcing (Portugal). In Germany, though, they opt for narrower sets of knowledge protection strategies if they invest in innovation activities themselves. We deduce that these results are due to a need for reciprocity in knowledge exchanges to benefit fully from promising host country knowledge flows.     

Comparisons of observed process quality in early child care and education programs in five countries

In this cross-national study, observed process quality in preschool classrooms was compared across five countries—Austria (n = 37), Germany (n=103), Portugal (n=88), Spain (n=80), and the U.S.A. (n=390). Process quality was assessed using the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS) and the Caregiver Interaction Scale (CIS). Both instruments had comparable properties when used in the different countries. A MANOVA found overall ECERS differences between countries, with Austria and Germany scoring higher than Spain, and Austria higher than the U.S.A. CIS Sensitivity scale differences showed Austria and Spain with higher scores than the U.S.A. Tests of homogeneity of variance showed U.S.A. with the highest standard deviations. A discriminant analysis, using countries as groups and ECERS items as criterion variables, revealed differences between countries on two discriminant functions: Personalized Care and Availability and Use of Space and Play Materials. Results are discussed in terms of the early childhood traditions and infrastructures found in the five countries.     

Protecting knowledge: How legal requirements to reveal information affect the importance of secrecy

Most firms use secrecy to protect their knowledge from potential imitators. However, the theoretical foundations for secrecy have not been well explored. We extend knowledge protection literature and propose theoretical mechanisms explaining how information visibility influences the importance of secrecy as a knowledge protection instrument. Building on mechanisms from information economics and signaling theory, we postulate that secrecy is more important for protecting knowledge for firms that have legal requirements to reveal information to shareholders. Furthermore, we argue that this effect is contingent on the location in a technological cluster, on a firm’s investment in fixed assets and on a firm’s past innovation performance. We test our hypotheses using a representative sample of 683 firms in Germany between 2005 and 2013. Our results support the moderation effect of a technological cluster and a firm’s investment in fixed assets. Our findings inform both academics and managers on how firms balance information disclosure requirements with the use of secrecy as a knowledge protection instrument.     

Grundlegende Fragen Des Verhältnisses Zwischen Allgemeiner Und Beruflicher Bildung

Zusammenfassung In diesem Beitrag wird der Versuch unternommen, das Verhältnis von allgemeiner und beruflicher Bildung einer skizzierenden konzeptionellen Analyse zu unterziehen. Im ersten Abschnitt wird die Aktualität der Integration beider Bildungsbereiche begründet und auf Missverständnisse Bezug genommen, die der Bewältigung dieser curricularen Aufgabe im Wege stehen. Im zweiten Abschnitt wird berufliche Bildung als ein Teilbereich besonderer Bildung definiert und zu den Stufen in Beziehung gesetzt, in denen sich allgemeine Bildung mit ihren inhaltlichen und methodischen Komponenten äussert. Die an allgemeinbildenden Sekundarschulen vermittelte studienbezogene Bildung erscheint in dieser Konzeption als Sonderfall beruflicher Bildung. Der Beitrag schliesst mit der Formulierung und Begründung dreier Thesen zur Notwendigkeit einer Lösung des Integrationsproblems und der Auswertung von Projekten, die unter verschiedenartigen didaktischen und organisatorischen Voraussetzungen durchgeführt werden.

---

This contribution attempts a broad conceptual analysis of the relationship between general and vocational education. In the first section the topicality of an integration of the two educational areas is shown, and reference is made to misunderstandings obstructing this curricular task. In the second section, vocational education is defined as one of several special types of education and related to the various levels of general education with their specific contents and methods. The preparatory courses for university provided in general, secondary schools appear in this concept as a special case of vocational education. Finally the article develops three theses on the necessity of resolving the integration problem and of evaluating projects that have been carried out under different didactic and organisational conditions.

---

Résumé L'auteur de cette étude procède dans les grandes lignes à l'analyse conceptuelle de la relation existant entre l'enseignement général et l'enseignement professionnel. Dans la première partie il montre l'actualité d'une intégration de ces deux domaines et signale les malentendus qui font obstacle à ce problème de curriculum. Dans la seconde partie l'auteur définit l'enseignement professionnel comme l'un des secteurs de l'enseignement spécial, secteur rattaché aux différents degrés de l'enseignement général avec leurs contenus spécifiques et leurs méthodes propres. L'enseignement dispensé dans les établissements secondaires de formation générale et préparant aux études supérieures apparaît dans ce concept comme un cas particulier d'enseignement professionnel. L'auteur conclut en formulant trois thèses sur la nécessité de résoudre le problème de l'intégration et d'évaluer les projets qui ont été appliqués dans des conditions didactiques distinctes et des organisations différentes.

     

Symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and home learning environment (HLE): findings from a longitudinal study

The concept of “Home Learning Environment” (HLE) covers activities in a family providing intellectual stimulation for a child, such as reading to him or her or visiting libraries. Numerous studies have shown an association between HLE and children's cognitive development. In this longitudinal study, we focus on HLE as a predictor for children's behavioral development, namely, for later symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), controlling for relevant aspects like socioeconomic status (SES), or television viewing behavior. We analyzed the development of ADHD symptoms from kindergarten to the end of grade 2 and possible associations with HLE, SES, and television exposure, using a German community sample (N?=?924). Results indicated that ADHD symptoms were negatively and significantly correlated to HLE for all five measurement points as well as to SES (except T4) and to television exposure for T1 to T4. Observing later development, only early HLE but not SES or television exposure served as a significant predictor for ADHD symptoms at school, when age, sex, and ADHD symptoms in kindergarten were controlled for. A structural equation model showed that HLE acted as a mediator between SES and later ADHD symptoms. Our results highlight the importance of the concept of home learning environment also for children's behavioral development. As a consequence, parents should be supported in offering their children a more favorable learning environment.     

Comparisons of observed process quality in German and American infant/toddler programs

Observed process quality in infant/toddler classrooms was compared in Germany (n = 75) and the USA (n = 219). Process quality was assessed with the Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale(ITERS) and parent attitudes about ITERS content with the ITERS Parent Questionnaire (ITERSPQ). The ITERS had comparable reliabilities in the two countries and similar factors were found. Content validity of the ITERS is supported in both countries by similarly high ITERSPQ importance scores. ITERS classroom mean scores are similar (Germany = 3.21; USA = 3.36), but a higher US standard deviation is found. A discriminant analysis revealed differences between countries on a bipolar dimension, with US programs characterized by higher scores on custodial issues while German programs have higher scores on educational aspects. Spearman rank order correlations were completed on ITERSPQ importance scores and observed ITERS scores, showing an association only in the USA. Results are discussed in terms of the parental values and infrastructures found in the two countries.

La qualité de processus observée dans les salles de classe des Enfants/Petits Enfants a été comparée en l’Allemagne (n = 75) et aux Etats‐Unis (n = 219). La qualité de processus a été évaluée avec l’Échelle d’Évaluation de l’Environnement des Enfants/Petits Enfants (ITERS) et les attitudes des parents au sujet du contenu de l’ITERS avec le Questionnaire d’ITERS pour les Parents (ITERSPQ). L’ITERS a eu fiabilités comparables dans les deux pays et des facteurs semblables ont été trouvés. La validité du contentu de l’ITERS est soutenue dans les deux pays par des points sur l’importance d’ITERSPQ pareillement hauts. Les points moyens ITERS de la salle de classe sontsemblables, (Allemagne = 3.21 ; Etats‐Unis = 3.36), mais un écart type plus élevé pour les Etats‐Unis est trouvé. Une analyse discriminante a indiqué des différences entre les pays sur une dimension bipolaire, avec les programmes des Etats‐Unis caractérisés par de points plus hauts sur la question de la garde tandis que les programmes allemands ont de points plus hauts sur des aspects éducatifs. Des corrélations Spearman d’ordre de rang ont été accomplies sur les points d’importance ITERSPQ et on a observé des points d’ITERS montrer une association seulement pour les Etats‐Unis. Des résultats sont discutés en termes de valeurs et infrastructures parentales trouvées dans les deux pays.

La calidad de proceso observada en salas de clase de infantes/niños pequeños fue comparada en Alemania (n = 75) y los E.E.U.U. (n = 219). La calidad de proceso fue determinada con la Escala para Evaluar el Ambiente del Infante/ Niño pequeño (ITERS) y las actitudes de los padres hacia el contenido del ITERS con el Cuestionario ITERS para los Padres (ITERSPQ). El ITERS tenía confiabilidades comparables en los dos países y se encontraron factores similares. La validez del contenido del ITERS es apoyada en ambos países por los puntajes sobre la importancia del ITERSPQ que son semejantemente altos. Los puntajes medios ITERS de la sala de clase son similares, (Alemania = 3.21; E.E.U.U. = 3.36), pero se encuentra una desviación estándar más alta con los E.E.U.U. Un análisis discriminante reveló diferencias entre los países en una dimensión bipolar, con los programas de los E.E.U.U. caracterizados por puntajes más altos en el área de la custodia mientras que los programas alemanes tienen puntajes más altos en los aspectos educativos. Las correlaciones Spearman sobre el orden de rango fueron completadas en los puntajes sobre la importancia de ITERSPQ y se observaron puntajes de ITERS demostrando una asociación solamente en los E.E.U.U. Los resultados se discuten en términos de los valores parentales e infraestructuras encontradas en los dos países.     

Comprehending conflicting science-related texts: graphs as plausibility cues

When reading conflicting science-related texts, readers may attend to cues which allow them to assess plausibility. One such plausibility cue is the use of graphs in the texts, which are regarded as typical of ‘hard science’. The goal of our study was to investigate the effects of the presence of graphs on the perceived plausibility and situation model strength for conflicting science-related texts, while including the influence of readers’ amount of experience with scientific texts and graphs as a potential moderator of these effects. In an experiment mimicking web-based informal learning, 77 university students read texts on controversial scientific issues which were presented with either graphs or tables. Perceived plausibility and situation model strength for each text were assessed immediately after reading; reader variables were assessed several weeks prior to the experiment proper. The results suggest that graphs can indeed serve as plausibility cues and thus boost situation model strength for texts which contain them. This effect was mediated by the perceived plausibility of the information in the texts with graphs. However, whether readers use graphs as plausibility cues in texts with conflicting information seems to depend also on their amount of experience with scientific texts and graphs.     

Reading achievement, metacognition, reading self-concept and interest: A study of German students in grades 3 and 4

This study examined the reading achievement, metacognitive knowledge related to reading and memory, reading self-concept, and interest in reading of 140 German school students in Grades 3 and 4. The results indicated significant correlations between the metacognitive variables, motivational variables, and amongst metacognitive and motivational variables, as well as with reading achievement variables. The examination of good and poor readers showed significant differences in metacognitive knowledge of reading and memory, reading self-concept, interest in reading, and in teacher judgements of reading achievement between the groups. Differences between Grade 3 and 4 students were found in their word decoding skills, metacognitive knowledge about reading and memory, and teacher judgements of reading achievement. Results of the regression analysis indicated that reading achievement was predicted by grade level, word decoding, and teacher evaluations of reading achievement. The causal modelling indicated that motivation and metacognition affect reading comprehension in different ways. The findings are discussed in terms of future research and their educational implications.