Variations in methods of calculating reliability of duration data

The traditional percentage and correlational methods of estimating reliability of duration recording were compared to the reliability obtained with an event-by-event examination of observers' records in which the actual percentage of time that the observers were in agreement was calculated. While observing standardized videotapes, eight volunteer undergraduate students recorded “studying” using a specific definition and “not eating” using a nonspecific definition. The order of persentation and level of definition specificity were reversed for eight additional volunteer observers. Recordings were done on an event recorder. It was found that the traditional percentage reliability scores were significantly higher than actual (event-by-event) observer agreement for both behaviors, at both levels of definition specificity. Correlational reliability coefficients were significantly greater than event-by-event scores for specific definitions only. Implications of the findings include the possibility that duration recording, which does not involve a permanent product (e.g., when using a stopwatch), may be periodically checked for reliability with an event recorder, or that interval recording may be used.     

The relationship among attributions,divergent thinking,and retention of nonsense syllables and nonrelated words

Students' employment of meaning through cognitive strategies in a retention task was explored in terms of attributional assignment and/or divergent thinking. Students were randomly assigned to either a list of nonsense syllables or nonrelated words. Attributional assignment was measured by Lefcourt's Multidimensional-Multiattributional Causality Scales (MMCS – IV); divergent thinking was measured by Guilford's tests of Fluency, Flexibility, and Originality. A questionnaire assessing students' beliefs regarding success and failure was also administered. No relationship was found among attributional assignment as measured by the MMCS-IV, divergent thinking, and retention. Strategy use was not related to retention. Students' attributional beliefs regarding failure were predictive of retention for the nonsense syllables. Discussion suggests the need to distinguish between tactic and strategy through analysis of metacognitive processes. Interpretation of the results may indicate that the divergent-thinking measures were not sensitive enough and/or the retention task did not require these divergent-thinking skills.     

Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness After Inspiratory Threshold Loading in Healthy Adults

Purpose: Skeletal muscle damage occurs following high-intensity or unaccustomed exercise; however, it is difficult to monitor damage to the respiratory muscles, particularly in humans. The aim of this study was to use clinical measures to investigate the presence of skeletal muscle damage in the inspiratory muscles. Methods: Ten healthy subjects underwent 60 minutes of voluntary inspiratory threshold loading (ITL) at 70% of maximal inspiratory pressure. Maximal inspiratory and expiratory mouth pressures, delayed onset muscle soreness on a visual analogue scale and plasma creatine kinase were measured prior to ITL, and at repeated time points after ITL (4, 24 and 48 hours post-ITL). Results: Delayed onset muscle soreness was present in all subjects 24 hours following ITL (intensity = 22 ± 6 mm; significantly higher than baseline p = 0.02). Muscle soreness was reported primarily in the anterior neck region, and was correlated to the amount of work done by the inspiratory muscles during ITL (r = 0.72, p = 0.02). However, no significant change was observed in maximal inspiratory or expiratory pressures or creatine kinase. Conclusions: These findings suggest that an intense bout of ITL results in muscle soreness primarily in the accessory muscles of inspiration, however, may be insufficient to cause significant muscle damage in healthy adults.Key Words: delayed onset muscle soreness, respiratory muscles, skeletal muscle damage     

Current Research on Child Maltreatment: Implications for Educators

The increasing rate of child abuse and neglect is a special concern for educators who are legally mandated reporters of suspected maltreatment, are often the first to identify and refer children who have been harmed, are in contact with parents and are aware of the family conditions contributing to child maltreatment, and who must often work closely with other professionals in their efforts to support child victims and prevent further abuse. Moreover, children's emotional or behavioral problems, learning disabilities, or other difficulties often reflect broader problems that are associated with abuse or neglect. Consequently, understanding the causes and consequences of child maltreatment, and contemporary child protection efforts, is essential to educators in their efforts to assist victimized children. This article surveys current research on child maltreatment with particular attention to the challenges of child protection, the multidimensionality of child maltreatment (distinguishing physical abuse, physical neglect, sexual abuse, and psychological maltreatment), and hopeful new avenues for prevention. The implications of this research for educational professionals are emphasized.     

老年人的体育锻炼与身心健康

本文回顾了近十年来国外有关老年人的体育锻炼与身心健康方面的研究成果,具体讨论了老年人体育锻炼的生理心理效应,老年妇女与体育锻炼,老年人参加体育锻炼的动机以及影响老年人参加和坚持体育锻炼的因素等四个问题。