Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions

Traditionally, Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) has focused on instructional methods to decrease extraneous cognitive load so that available cognitive resources can be fully devoted to learning. This article strengthens the cognitive base of CLT by linking cognitive processes to the processes used by biological evolution. The article discusses recent developments in CLT related to the current view in instructional design that real-life tasks should be the driving force for complex learning. First, the complexity, or intrinsic cognitive load, of such tasks is often high so that new methods are needed to manage cognitive load. Second, complex learning is a lengthy process requiring learners motivational states and levels of expertise development to be taken into account. Third, this perspective requires more advanced methods to measure expertise and cognitive load so that instruction can be flexibly adapted to individual learners needs. Experimental studies are reviewed to illustrate these recent developments. Guidelines for future research are provided.     

Adaptive terminal sliding mode control for high-order nonlinear dynamic systems

An adaptive terminal sliding mode control (SMC) technique is proposed to deal with the tracking problem for a class of high-order nonlinear dynamic systems. It is shown that a function augmented sliding hyperplane can be used to develop a new terminal sliding mode for high-order nonlinear systems. A terminal SMC controller based on Lyapunov theory is designed to force the state variables of the closed-loop system to reach and remain on the terminal sliding mode, so that the output tracking error then converges to zero in finite time which can be set arbitrarily. An adaptive mechanism is introduced to estimate the unknown parameters of the upper bounds of system uncertainties. The estimates are then used as controller parameters so that the effects of uncertain dynamics can be eliminated. It is also shown that the stability of the closed-loop system can be guaranteed with the proposed control strategy. The simulation of a numerical example is provided to show the effectiveness of the new method. Project supported by the National Outstanding Youth Science Foundation of China (NSFC:69725005) and the Zhejiang, Provincial Natural Science Key Foundation of China (ZD9905)     

Teachers’ interpersonal relationships and instructional expertise: How are they related?

This study explores new directions to study and combine measurements of instructional expertise and teachers’ interpersonal relationships with students. The sample comprises 34 in-service teachers. The My Teacher questionnaire (MTQ) was used to operationalize teachers’ instructional expertise. The Questionnaire of Teacher Interaction (QTI) was used to describe teachers’ interpersonal relationships with students. Hypotheses were tested using circular mixed-effects models. Results indicate that teachers’ interpersonal relationships differ at successive levels of instructional expertise. Results further indicated that increases in instructional expertise are associated with a sharp decrease in the within-class variance in interpersonal relationships. Specifically, the higher teachers’ instructional expertise, the more teachers' interpersonal relationships are described as “directing” and “helpful” by all students in the class.     

跨组织信息系统与组织间社会网络的互动关系研究

在对组织间社会网络与跨组织信息系统应用研究进行综述的基础上,提出了一个基于适应性结构化理论的跨组织信息系统与组织间社会网络互动的研究框架。这一框架将跨组织信息系统与社会网络作为影响跨组织信息系统应用的两种主要结构来源,将互动的过程分为对结构的征用与业务流程的相互作用,互动的结果影响跨组织信息系统的应用绩效。通过结构的维度划分和对互动过程进行解构,这一模型能够更好地解释跨组织信息系统的供应链使用。     

What do we know about early sport specialization? Not much!

In November 2005, the International Olympic Committee's Medical Commission issued a statement on Training the elite child athlete recommending that “more scientific research be done to better identify the parameters of training the elite child athlete”. This paper focuses on a specific issue related to training the child athlete: early specialization. While associations between early specialization and expertise development are highlighted, much research also suggests early specialization is associated with a range of negative consequences affecting physical, psychological, and social development. Alternately, some researchers have proposed that an early diversification approach does not disadvantage athletes in acquiring expertise, and is important for the development of intrinsic motivation and skill transferability. However, this review suggests that inadequate evidence exists to resolve the issue in favor of either approach.     

Authentic science experiences as a vehicle for assessing orientation towards science and science careers relative to identity and agency: a response to “learning from the path followed by Brad”

This response draws from the literature on adaptive learning, traditional ecological knowledge, and social–ecological systems to show that Brad’s choice is not a simple decision between traditional ecological knowledge and authentic science. This perspective recognizes knowledge systems as dynamic, cultural and historical activities characterized by diverse worldviews and ways of constructing and legitimizing knowledge. Brad’s decision is seen as an example of adaptive learning, identity development and personal/collective agency oriented to increasing tribal influence in resource management decisions and policies. I will conclude that science literacy for all is not served by a transcendent, universal, Western modern view of science.

Knowledge elaboration: A cognitive load perspective

The process of knowledge elaboration is considered from the perspective of cognitive load theory. This theory assumes that the available knowledge structures in long-term memory (LTM) are used to organize and guide cognitive processing in complex learning. Accordingly, the role of external instructional guidance in the process of knowledge elaboration could be described as providing a substitute for knowledge structures missing from LTM. Thus, the executive guidance in complex learning environments is shared between the person (based on his/her LTM knowledge structures) and another expert or instructional means. This article analyzes instructional implications of this assumption. Adaptive learning environments are suggested for tailoring knowledge elaboration processes to changing characteristics of individual learners. Means for identifying and predicting the learner's LTM-based executive guidance are proposed so that they can be utilized in the building of adaptive learning environments.     

Observations of youth football training: How do coaches structure training sessions for player development?

We used systematic observation tools to explore the structure (i.e., activity and inactivity) and sequencing (i.e., the types of activities used) of football coaching sessions in Australia following the implementation of a new National Curriculum. Youth soccer coaches (n = 34), coaching within the Skill Acquisition (U11–U13 n = 19) and Game Training (U14–U17 n = 15) phases of the Football Federation Australia National Curriculum participated. Participants were filmed during a regular coaching session, with systematic observation of the session undertaken to provide a detailed analysis of the practice activities and coach behaviours. Findings indicated a session comprised of Playing Form activities (40.9%), Training Form activities (22.3%), inactivity (31%), and transitions between activities (5.8%). Coaches prescribed more Training Form activities (e.g., individual (5.4%) and drills (15.1%)) early in the session and progressed to Playing Form activities (i.e., small-sided games (15.3%) then larger games (24.8%)) later in the session. Most inactivity reflected the players listening to the coach – either in a team huddle (9.9%) or frozen on the spot during an activity (16.5%). In addition, coaches generally spent over 3 min communicating to players prior to explaining and introducing an activity regardless of when in the session the activity was scheduled.     

Differences in novice and experienced teachers’ perceptions of planning activities in terms of primary instructional tasks

This study was aimed at investigating differences between novice and experienced teachers’ perceptions of planning activities for developing teacher education students’ professional skills by focusing on promoting of identified ill-developed skills. The teachers’ thinking about instructional planning was conceived as teachers’ decision-making for implementing primary teaching tasks in the planning, delivery, and reflective phases of instruction. This model served as a basis (or framework) for the identification of potential variables of planning skills and developing of items for a teachers’ questionnaire. Fifty-eight experienced and 55 novice teachers from Estonian schools of general education were surveyed. It was revealed that novice teachers did not apprehend events that may undermine reaching long-term instructional objectives and they focused more on the achievement of immediate objectives and the teaching of obligatory content in comparison with experienced teachers.     

Examining the perceived value of professional judgement and decision-making in mountain leaders in the UK: a mixed-methods investigation

This paper utilised a two-part mixed-methodology to examine the value placed on judgement and decision-making by a sample of qualified mountain leaders in the UK. Qualified leaders (N = 331) completed a web-based survey and a smaller sample (N = 8) were then interviewed. Survey data showed that mountain leaders place greater value on their judgements and decision-making when compared to the technical skills of mountain navigation and rope work; however, the process for developing these judgement skills was unclear. Interview data identified that judgement skills appear transferrable from other domains experienced by the leaders (e.g. emergency services, military) but are then recontextualised and modified for effective use within mountain leadership. The leaders facilitated this via a nested reflective process that combines in-action, on-action and on-action/in-context aspects that rely on metacognition. This combination of reflection and metacognition allows for rapid development of judgement making skills in-context. Implications for mountain leadership training are discussed.