From their ‘own’ to ‘both’ interpretations: children’s understanding of ambiguity / De ‘su’ interpretación a ‘ambas’: la comprensión de la ambigüedad en los niños

Abstract

The present study aimed to analyse whether young children’s failure in succeeding ambiguity tasks is related to a bias in favour of maintaining their initial interpretation or one in favour of showing conformity to the interpretation of another person. Two experiments were conducted with ambiguous figures and ambiguous sentences. After giving their own interpretation of the stimulus, children of different ages (from 3–8 years of age) were confronted with the alternative interpretation. In general, the results of the two experiments found an accentuated ‘own’ bias, meaning that young children usually persisted in their own interpretation and did not show conformity to the ‘other’ interpretation. Only after the second grade were children able to understand that both interpretations (their own and the alternative) were equally valid for the same stimulus. The results also revealed that the ability to show informed reversal does not necessarily imply the ability to overcome the ‘own’ interpretation bias and, consequently, does not require the achievement of a real understanding of ambiguity. The present study showed an age-related development of ambiguity understanding, from an egocentric interpretation to the acceptance of two interpretations as equally valid.     

小学三年级儿童情绪、语义启动后判断偏向的比较

本研究设置情绪启动和语义启动两种情境,欲从两种启动后个体的认知偏向改变的角度对小学儿童情绪启动与语义启动效应进行直接比较.实验材料中的启动刺激为集表情信息和性别语义信息为一体的面孔图片,并对两种信息强度进行匹配,靶刺激为模糊面孔图片.选取三年级儿童共40名,让被试完成 SOA 设置为250 ms 的偏向判断实验.结果发现:在同样强度的情绪信息和语义信息启动条件下,基于各自优势的偏向判断任务,情绪启动的表现很典型,出现了与启动刺激一致性的情绪偏向.该结果说明,情绪、语义启动后对认知偏向的改变不仅仅由启动刺激的情绪信息和语义信息带来,同时也受到个体自身偏向的影响.启动刺激的情绪效价信息可以在短时间内得到加工,并且属于自动激活的加工方式.     

A Study of Children’s Fears

In carefully examining the thesis of a paper by Anderson, Nelson, and Edgington (1984) concerning the socalled Fool’s Type IIa error, one realizes that certain fundamental statistical tenets have been overlooked or ignored. The purpose of the present paper is to discount the notion of a Fool’s Type IIa error under the Neyman-Pearson philosophy of testing statistical hypotheses and to highlight the need for improved statistical education related to hypothesis testing. If the importance of Type I and Type II errors cannot be quantified, then the Neyman-Pearson approach to hypothesis testing is of no value, and hence a Fool’s Type IIa error is irrelevant. If statistical testing errors are important and can be quantified, then adjustment for the Fool’s Type IIa error region is equivalent to increasing the probability of making a Type I error.     

不同状态焦虑水平下运动员对情绪信息的注意偏向

探讨不同状态焦虑水平下特质焦虑运动员对情绪信息的注意偏向.被试为高/低特质焦虑运动员各30名（两个实验各15名）,以正性情绪词、负性情绪词和中性词为刺激材料.通过诱发程序,在实验1中诱发低状态焦虑情绪,在实验2中诱发高状态焦虑情绪,然后进行点探测反应时实验.结果表明,在低状态焦虑水平下,高/低特质焦虑运动员对正性情绪词和负性情绪词的同侧位置反应时与异侧位置反应时均无显著性差异;在高状态焦虑水平下,高特质焦虑运动员的负性情绪词的同侧位置反应时短于异侧位置反应时,对负性情绪词警觉,低特质焦虑运动员负性情绪词的同侧位置反应时长于异侧位置反应时,对负性情绪词回避.在状态焦虑与特质焦虑交互作用下,特质焦虑运动员对负性情绪信息存在注意偏向.     

Contextual Factors and Age Group Differences in Coincidence-Anticipation Performance

Abstract

Age group differences in the direction of anticipatory motor responses may be attributable to the increased susceptibility of young children to contextual factors. That is, their performances on a given trial may be influenced by the stimulus speed presented in the previous trial. Mixed-sex groups of 8–9 year-olds and adults were given 3 blocks of 18 coincidence-anticipation trials each in a counterbalanced design. One block contained stimulus speeds of 1, 3, or 5 MPH, another speeds of 3, 5, or 7 MPH, and a third speeds of 5, 7, or 9 MPH, so that the 5 MPH speed was common to all blocks. An age group by sex by testing order by trial block ANOVA of constant error on the 5 MPH trials indicated that trial block was a significant factor within an age group by block interaction. Mean scores showed that the children responded very early in the 5–7–9 MPH block to the 5 MPH stimuli while the adults did not. Testing order was also a significant factor: subjects in the 1–3–5, 5–7–9, 3–5–7 MPH order performed with significantly greater directional error. While the later finding may indicate contextual factors influenced performance, there is no strong evidence that contextual factors differentially affected the age groups.     

Scoring Bias in Springboard and Platform Diving: A Bayesian Approach to Revision of DD Tables

Abstract

Springboard and platform diving, unlike other sports competitions that use absolute performance measures, relies instead on a panel of judges to assess the aesthetic and technical quality of the athlete's performance. Using data from the 1983 U.S.A. Indoor Diving Nationals, regression analysis was used to determine if there was a statistically significant relationship between degree of difficulty (DD) and scores awarded for a dive. Surprisingly, the analysis revealed that as divers attempted higher degree of difficulty dives, judges became less inclined to award lower scores. Even though the average scores were lower for high DD dives, they were not low enough to compensate for the higher DD rating. Further analysis revealed that the women's competition had less scoring bias towards high DD dives than the men's competition. Even a small amount of scoring bias towards high DD dives is important since typically small total point differences in scores separate the finishing order of divers at a national or international competition. Bayesian analysis, based upon actual diver performance at national and international competitions, is suggested as one method of dealing with the problem of scoring bias towards high DD dives. Using this approach, probability of a score given the DD [P(DD/Score)] is derived from the initially observed P(Scores/DD). Monte Carlo methods can then be used to simulate large numbers of divers performing at each DD level to obtain more precise DD measures for a particular dive.     

Willingness to Pay for Submerged Maritime Cultural Resources

Many consider salvage value and tourism expenditures as the only economic values of a historic shipwreck. This paper looks at one alternative, the non-market value generated by management of shipwrecks as submerged maritime cultural resources. We consider the question: How much are people willing to pay to maintain shipwrecks in their pristine state? The contingent valuation method was implemented during summer 2001 as part of a telephone survey to households in eastern North Carolina. We find that households are willing to pay about $35 in a one-time increase in state taxes. Willingness to payis internally validated by expected relationships with prices and income but fails to pass the scope test. We speculate that we inadvertently succumbed to the well-known “birds” problem. The double-bounded willingness to pay questions are not incentive compatible and are subject to starting point bias, despite efforts to minimize these effects.     

试论英语中的性别歧视

语言在社会中所处的地位尤为重要，它的使用能从一个侧面反映社会思想、态度和化。章旨在呼吁人们避免使用具有性别歧视的英语，它着重论述了存在于英语的性别歧视现象、产生原因、避免的必要性、可能性以及如何避免等问题。     

《纳尼亚传奇》中的女性歧视现象研究

《纳尼亚传奇》是20世纪最佳儿童图书之一,但作品中存在着种族偏见、贬低女性等瑕疵。本文试图从白女巫与阿斯兰、迪格雷与波莉、彼得与苏珊等男女形象的对比分析入手,论证作者在作品中流露出的对女性的一些偏见。