Expectation effects: Pygmalion and the initial 20 years of research1

ABSTRACT

This article reviews Rosenthal and Jacobson’s (1968) seminal study, Pygmalion in the Classroom (PC). We consider what preceded PC, the actual study, immediate criticisms of it, Rosenthal’s reactions to the criticism, and, importantly, the research that followed PC from 1968 to roughly 1990. Despite critical criticisms of it, we conclude that PC had a tremendous impact because it stimulated researchers to study expectation effects in the classroom that established that some teachers do form and communicate differential expectations to their students and that some students internalise these expectations in ways that manifest in their actual performance. The research that followed PC has yielded rich concepts and findings that are relevant for theory, practice, and social policy.     

Do teachers differ in the level of expectations or in the extent to which they differentiate in expectations? Relations between teacher-level expectations,teacher background and beliefs,and subsequent student performance

ABSTRACT

Previous studies have indicated that, although some teachers have substantial expectation effects on student outcomes, the effects for most teachers are only small. Furthermore, teacher expectations are associated with key pedagogical differences related to teacher beliefs about providing instruction and support for learning. The aim of this study was to explore (a) teacher-level differences in the level and differentiation of expectations, (b) associations between teacher differences in expectations and teacher background and beliefs, and (c) relationships with subsequent student performance. Secondary analyses were performed on data for 42 teachers and their students in New Zealand. The results were supportive of the notion that some teachers were differentiating more between students in their expectations than others. Teachers who differentiated more perceived students generally as more competent, but felt less related to the school team, and perceived more classroom stress. Differentiation in expectations was negatively related to end-of-year mathematics scores.     

The independent contributions of gender stereotypes and gender identification in predicting primary school pupils’ expectancies of success in STEM fields

On the basis of the expectancy‐value theory of achievement, this paper aims to examine the relative contributions of gender‐stereotype endorsement and gender identification on expectancies for success in STEM fields. In a sample of 880 Croatian primary school pupils of approximately 12 years of age, stereotyped beliefs about gender‐appropriateness of STEM‐related professions (stereotype endorsement) and self‐perception as a typical representative of one's gender (gender identification) were first assessed. Participants also reported their expectations for success in each of the STEM‐related professions previously used for establishing stereotype endorsement. Stereotype endorsement and gender identification separately interacted with gender to predict expectancies for success in STEM‐related professions. Higher levels of stereotype endorsement and gender identification fostered stereotype‐consistent expectancies for success in STEM fields (higher expectancies for boys than for girls). Implications are discussed in terms of strategies to encourage girls to engage in STEM‐related careers.     

Institutional habitus in context: implementation,development and impacts in two compulsory secondary schools in Barcelona

This article aims to revisit the relationship between school-level variables and students’ educational opportunities through the lens of institutional habitus. This approach is particularly well suited to explore the notion of school culture because it brings to the forefront the impact of social context, avoiding some of the limitations typically associated with the long-dominant perspective of school effectiveness research. Drawing on an ethnographic approach, the article explores how institutional habitus unfolds in two urban public secondary schools in the city of Barcelona. Breaking the notion down into three main components (educational status, organizational practices and expressive order), the analysis identifies two main types of institutional habitus – one based on action and inclusion, and another based on reaction and expulsion. Ultimately, these results give insight into the complex interplay of these three components, as well as on their combined impact on students’ educational opportunities.     

Similarity and difference in fee-paying and no-fee learner expectations,interaction and reaction to learning in a massive open online course

The new pedagogical opportunities that massive open online course (MOOC) learning environments offer for the teaching of fee-paying students on university-accredited courses are of growing interest to educators. This paper presents a case study from a postgraduate-taught course at the Open University, UK, where a MOOC performed the dual role of a core teaching vehicle for fee-paying students and also as a “free-to-join” course for open learners. An analysis of survey data revealed differences between the two groups in respect to prior experience, knowledge, expectations and planned time commitment. The nature and experience of interaction was also examined. Fee-paying student feedback revealed four conditions in which MOOCs could be considered a pedagogic option for taught-course designers. These are: when there is a subject need; when used to achieve learning outcomes; when there is acknowledgement or compensation for the financial disparity; and when issues of transition and interaction are supported.     

Relationship between teacher intentions and their classroom use of Superscience

Using the conceptual model of reasoned action, one would expect that what teachers do with instructional materials would be influenced by their internal beliefs and their external constraints. In this two-year study with elementary teachers, using a supplemental science instructional resource,Superscience, it was found that teachers' internal beliefs about what will benefit their students are linked to the external constraints of their students' interests and the expected curriculum. Even if the teachers believed that the content of the resource would be helpful, they were not likely to use it if they believed it did not fit the expected curriculum.     

Networked Learning in Higher Education: Students’ Expectations and Experiences

This paper reports findings from a study of undergraduates’ expectations about, and experiences of, networked learning using computer-mediated conferencing (CMC). The data come from questionnaires administered at the start and end of four different courses, and their interpretation is informed by a set of interviews with students and teachers involved in these and other networked learning courses. Students’ views were generally positive at the start and at the end of each course, though they became more moderate over time. The structure of students’ reported feelings remained relatively stable over time. There was no evidence to suggest that male or younger students had more positive feelings about networked learning. The thoroughness with which CMC is integrated into a networked learning course appears as a significant factor in explaining differences in students’ feelings about the worth and value of their experience. As might be expected, a well-integrated course was associated with more positive experiences.     

The effect of time‐on‐task on student grades and grade expectations

The effects of students’ attitudes on time devoted to a course (i.e. time‐on‐task), and the subsequent effects of this time‐on‐task on their performance in the course and their overall grade point average (GPA) were studied. Over a three‐year period, engineering students (N = 231) were surveyed in weeks one, three, seven (after midterms) and 10 (before finals) of a 10‐week quarter in six sophomore and junior engineering classes (eight different sections). Results of this study show that most students are optimistic about their future performance in a new course, regardless of their previous overall GPA. All students appear to devote a relatively high and equal amount of time‐on‐task during the first week of the term. The students who earned grades between ‘B+’ and ‘A’ appear to optimise this time by the third week. Students who earned a final grade of ‘B’ study similar to ‘A’ students before midterms but significantly increase their efforts after midterms while the ‘C’ students decrease their time devoted to the course. This study finds that ‘A’ students know they will earn an ‘A’ as long as they do the work. In contrast, ‘C’ students are resigned to the fact that they will earn a ‘C’ and, thus, devote far less time to a course. The ‘B’ students want better grades and will devote the most effort towards achieving these grades.     

Cultural dimensions of feedback at an Australian university: a study of international students with English as an additional language

International students with English as an additional language face transitional challenges when entering a new academic culture. One such challenge involves optimising feedback to help foster their academic development, bearing in mind that feedback is not a culturally neutral entity (Nazif, A., Biswas, D., &; Hilbig, R. (2004–2005). Towards an understanding of student perceptions of feedback. Carleton Papers in Applied Language Studies, 21/22, 166–192). The current study of 134 postgraduate international students examines pre-course and in-course perceptions, experiences and expectations of feedback at university in Australia. Responses to questionnaires and in focus groups revealed that students’ previous feedback experiences had largely been summative, with an emphasis on error correction, but they expected to receive more feedback, particularly formative, throughout their courses. They also had concerns about understanding feedback, and about potentially negative remarks. These concerns were partially borne out by a follow-up survey (n?=?43) in which only 29% said they understood everything their lecturers said. Teachers giving feedback to international students may, therefore, need to consider the nature of their comments, their method of delivery and how their feedback affects student development.