Before the ‘Black Ferns’: Tracing the Beginnings of Women’s Rugby in New Zealand

Abstract

Women’s rugby union in New Zealand has increased in popularity over the past decade, preceded by two decades of dominance at the international level and much activism to have the women’s game recognized and supported, nationally and provincially. However, as this paper reveals, women’s engagement with the game, as players, began more than 100 years before the Black Ferns won their first international tournament. Through an examination of several fleeting ‘episodes’ of women’s attempts to play in earnest, as represented in digitized newspapers from Papers Past, it becomes apparent that women’s foray into the hyper-masculinized team sport of rugby challenged dominant sensibilities but was not wholly resisted. The ‘events’ investigated here suggest that gender roles may have been more porous than traditionally invoked by the categories of ‘Victorian’ and ‘New Woman’, contested, albeit intermittently, by the actions of Pākehā and Māori women around the colony.     

A 12-month prospective cohort study of symptoms of common mental disorders among professional rugby players

The primary aims were to determine the 12-month incidence (and comorbidity) of symptoms of common mental disorders (CMD) among male professional rugby players and to explore their association with potential stressors. A secondary aim was to explore the view of male professional rugby players about the consequences of symptoms of CMD and related medical support/needs. An observational prospective cohort study with three measurements over a 12-month period was conducted among male professional rugby players from several countries. Symptoms of CMD (distress, anxiety/depression, sleep disturbance, eating disorders and adverse alcohol use) and stressors (adverse life events, rugby career dissatisfaction) were assessed through validated questionnaires. A total of 595 players (mean age of 26 years; mean career duration of 6 years) were enrolled, of which 333 completed the follow-up period. The incidence of symptoms of CMD were: 11% for distress, 28% for anxiety/depression, 12% for sleep disturbance, 11% for eating disorders and 22% for adverse alcohol use (13% for two simultaneous symptoms of CMD). Professional rugby players reporting recent adverse life events or career dissatisfaction were more likely to report symptoms of CMD but statistically significant associations were not found. Around 95% of the participants stated that symptoms of CMD can negatively influence rugby performances, while 46% mentioned that specific support measures for players were not available in professional rugby. Supportive and preventive measures directed towards symptoms of CMD should be developed to improve not only awareness and psychological resilience of rugby players but also their rugby performance and quality-of-life.     

Developing ‘Home-Grown’ Talent: Pacific Island Rugby Labour and the Victorian Rugby Union

The last 20 years has seen a great increase in Pacific Islander migration to Australia and also a subsequent rise in the number of Australians from Pacific island backgrounds. Perhaps one of the most visible spheres where this migratory phenomenon can be witnessed is in the massive over-representation of Pacific Islanders in both rugby codes. This paper examines the effects of professionalisation and the Super Rugby expansion into a ‘non-rugby’ state and subsequent efforts of the Victorian Rugby Union (VRU) to develop ‘home-grown’ talent, namely through its Pacific Island Programme. Whilst a minority sport in Australian Rules football centric Melbourne, rugby has grown considerably over the past decade, primarily because of the influx of players, especially junior ones, from Pacific Island backgrounds. The VRU has recognised this by developing a variety of rugby programmes focusing on the outer suburbs of Melbourne (away from its traditional base in the private schools) in response to the settling patterns of Pacific Islanders and their involvement in the game. This paper considers how such focus on Pacific Islander talent facilitates pathways to elite and professional rugby opportunities and thus contributes to the creation of the rugby labour migrant.     

Collision count in rugby union: A comparison of micro-technology and video analysis methods

The aim of our study was to determine if there is a role for manipulation of g force thresholds acquired via micro-technology for accurately detecting collisions in rugby union. In total, 36 players were recruited from an elite Guinness Pro12 rugby union team. Player movement profiles and collisions were acquired via individual global positioning system (GPS) micro-technology units. Players were assigned to a sub-category of positions in order to determine positional collision demands. The coding of collisions by micro-technology at g force thresholds between 2 and 5.5 g (0.5 g increments) was compared with collision coding by an expert video analyst using Bland–Altman assessments. The most appropriate g force threshold (smallest mean difference compared with video analyst coding) was lower for all forwards positions (2.5 g) than for all backs positions (3.5 g). The Bland–Altman 95% limits of agreement indicated that there may be a substantial over- or underestimation of collisions coded via GPS micro-technology when using expert video analyst coding as the reference comparator. The manipulation of the g force thresholds applied to data acquired by GPS micro-technology units based on incremental thresholds of 0.5 g does not provide a reliable tool for the accurate coding of collisions in rugby union. Future research should aim to investigate smaller g force threshold increments and determine the events that cause coding of false positives.     

The development of position-specific performance indicators in professional rugby union

The aim of this study was to construct a valid and reliable methodology for the analysis of performance profiles of individual playing positions within rugby union. Twenty-two matches were sampled from the domestic season of a professional male rugby union team. Key performance indicators for individual positions were developed and notated using a computerized behavioural analysis system. Performance profiles of playing positions containing data from one or more individuals were then constructed to compare intra-positional differences. Significant differences (chi-square) were observed between individuals within all the tested playing positions for the principal performance indicators (passing, carrying and tackling for the forward positions, and passing, carrying, tackling and kicking for the backs). For example, the difference between the two outside-halves in the study (P?<?0.001) was illustrated by one of the players having a median of 6 successful carries for the season (95% confidence limits of 13 and 3), whereas the other had a median of 2 successful carries (95% confidence limits of 5 and 1). The findings suggest that while general positional performance profiles appear to exist, intra-positional differences may occur due to variations in an individual's style of play, the decision-making demands of the position and the effects of potential confounding variables. Multiple profiles may therefore be necessary for some playing positions to account for variation in factors such as playing conditions and the strength of the opposition.     

Contributions of the non-kicking-side arm to rugby place-kicking technique

To investigate non-kicking-side arm motion during rugby place kicking, five experienced male kickers performed trials under two conditions, both with an accuracy requirement but one with an additional maximal distance demand. Joint centre coordinates were obtained at 120 Hz during kicking trials and a three-dimensional model was created to enable the determination of segmental contributions to whole-body angular momentum. All kickers possessed minimal non-kicking-side arm angular momentum about the global medio-lateral axis. The more accurate kickers exhibited greater non-kicking-side arm angular momentum about the global antero-posterior axis. This augmented the whole-body antero-posterior angular momentum, and altered the whole-body lateral lean at ball contact. The accurate kickers also exhibited greater non-kicking-side arm angular momentum about the global longitudinal axis, which opposed the kicking leg longitudinal angular momentum and attenuated the whole-body longitudinal angular momentum. All participants increased the longitudinal angular momentum of the non-kicking-side arm in the additional distance demand condition, except for one participant whose accuracy decreased, suggesting that the longitudinal angular momentum of the non-kicking-side arm assists maintenance of accuracy in maximum distance kicking. Goal kickers should be encouraged to produce non-kicking-side arm rotations about both the antero-posterior and longitudinal axes, as these appear important for both the initial achievement of accuracy, and for maintaining accuracy during distance kicking.     

Acceleratory match-play demands of a Super Rugby team over a competitive season

The match-play demands of rugby union have increased over time, and these demands should be quantified so as to provide a basis for optimal player loading during training. The primary aim of this article was to quantify accelerations, decelerations, impacts and aggregated body demands during the first half of match-play in a Super Rugby team. The secondary aim was to determine whether these characteristics are position-specific. Thirty-three players were monitored for 14 matches using global positioning system units with inbuilt microtechnology. Players were grouped according to positional roles and data were analysed for those who completed the entire duration of the first half of a given match. Forwards sustained more (d = 0.44) high-intensity impacts and greater (d = 0.26) aggregated body demands, while backs had more moderate (d = 0.55) and heavy accelerations (d = 0.76), and moderate (d = 0.23) and heavy decelerations (d = 0.54). These differences suggest that conditioning and recovery strategies should reflect the physical demands placed on players in different playing positions. Forwards should be conditioned with a focus on impacts and require longer recovery for the same duration of playing time, whereas conditioning for backs should emphasise rapid accelerations and decelerations.     

Women,Football and History: International Perspectives

This paper provides an overview of a collection of works related to women and football from international perspectives. After a general discursive introduction, the material discussed has its emphasis on studies connected to women and football that occur outside the locus of established scholarship. In particular, it is noted that the works concentrate on the geographic locations of New Zealand, Australia and the USA, and four major football codes are covered. The investigations are also not limited to women playing football, but female spectators and coterie groups are also considered. In terms of variety, different methodological and theoretical approaches are adopted, and a range of time periods are reflected on. Given the existing state of play, it would seem there is still much to be uncovered, documented and written about when it comes to women and the football codes. The conclusion is that any research agenda that emerges from observations on international perspectives concerning the relationship of women with football will continue to resonate and add value to wider understandings of sport and gender.     

Biological maturity-associated variance in peak power output and momentum in academy rugby union players

The study aimed to evaluate the mediating effect of biological maturation on anthropometrical measurements, performance indicators and subsequent selection in a group of academy rugby union players. Fifty-one male players 14–17 years of age were assessed for height, weight and BMI, and percentage of predicted mature status attained at the time of observation was used as an indicator of maturity status. Following this, initial sprint velocity (ISV), Wattbike peak power output (PPO) and initial sprint momentum (ISM) were assessed. A bias towards on-time (n?=?44) and early (n?=?7) maturers was evident in the total sample and magnified with age cohort. Relative to UK reference values, weight and height were above the 90th and 75th centiles, respectively. Significant (p?≤?.01) correlations were observed between maturity status and BMI (r?=?.48), weight (r?=?.63) and height (r?=?.48). Regression analysis (controlling for age) revealed that maturity status and height explained 68% of ISM variance; however, including BMI in the model attenuated the influence of maturity status below statistical significance (p?=?.72). Height and BMI explained 51% of PPO variance, while no initial significant predictors were identified for ISV. The sample consisted of players who were on-time and early in maturation with no late maturers represented. This was attributable, in part, to the mediating effect of maturation on body size, which, in turn, predicted performance variables.     

普通高校开设英式橄榄球选修课的构想

介绍了英式橄榄运动特点及价值。从英式橄榄球运动的审美需求、培养学生集体主义精神、娱乐功能等方面阐述了高校开设英式橄榄球课程的必要性。结合普通高校现有的设施基本能达到英式橄榄球比赛的基本要求与已有一批掌握英式橄榄球知识的教练员情况,建议在普通高等学校增设英式橄榄球选修课。