The Effects of Three Styles of Teaching on the Psychomotor Performance And Social Skill Development of Fifth Grade Children

Abstract

The effects of Mosston's teaching styles B, C and E were examined in terms of motor skill acquisition and social skill development of fifth grade children. Ninety-six children, randomly selected and randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups, were taught a hockey accuracy task. Motor performance data were collected prior to, midway through, and following training; they were analyzed within groups, to determine if learning was evident, and across groups, to examine the relative effectiveness of these three styles of teaching. Social behavior patterns observed during learner-to-learner interaction were also examined during a second task in which pairs of learners were asked to “help” each other learn the task. A 3 × 3 analysis of variance with repeated measures revealed that (1) all three groups learned the task and (2) they learned comparably well. It was concluded that these three styles of teaching are all effective in facilitating learning of this type of motor task. Style C, an arrangement in whcih learners work in pairs, one performing the task while being provided with formative feedback by the other, was found not only to produce comparable learning, but to significantly enhance social skill development on those behaviors associated with giving feedback and receiving it from a peer.     

The Effects of Age and Number of Demonstrations on Modeling of Form and Performance

Abstract

This study was designed to investigate the effects of age and number of demonstrations on both form (strategy employed) and physical performance on a Bachman ladder-balance task. College age (n = 60) and elementary age females (n = 60) were compared under four modeling conditions consisting of no, four, eight, and 12 demonstrations in an Age Group × Demonstration Group (2 × 4) MANOVA. Results indicated that college age students had higher performance and form scores than elementary age students. Only form differentiated the four demonstration groups. Participants receiving 12 demonstrations had higher form scores than the control participants. Form scores were analyzed in a discriminant function analysis to determine which of five form components differentiated the four demonstration groups. Results also revealed that climbing quickly was the component of form that differentiated the groups the most. It was concluded that matching form by the learner may be a more effective measure of modeling effects rather than inferring modeling from performance, especially in the initial stages of learning. In addition, it appears that the number of demonstrations needed to create modeling effects is task specific and dependent on the length of the practice period.     

Age and Sex Differences in Motor Performance of 3 through 6 Year Old Children

Abstract

This study examined the relationship of age and sex to the performance of 3, 4, 5, and 6 year olds on seven motor performance test items. Although significant age and sex differences were found on most of the motor tests, it appears that age generally was related more to performance than was gender. Overall, change with age was fairly linear except perhaps for balancing and a general tapering in improvement in the 5 to 6 year old category. On the tests of throwing and balancing, gender was as important as age, or more so, in its relationship to performance. Boys were superior to girls at all ages on the throwing tests; girls were superior to boys at age 6 on the Balance test. Gender differences of a lesser magnitude were found on the Speed Run and Standing Long Jump tests with the performance of boys generally being superior to the performance of girls. Thus, it appears that gender differences in motor performance occur as early as the preschool years. Interestingly, except for the Balance test, on all the tests the 3 and 4 year old boys performed similarly and the 5 and 6 year old boys performed similarly. For the girls there were more significant differences from year to year in performance, with the data generally indicating at least three distinct skill groups for girls from age 3 to 6.     

Influence of Decision-Making on Attitudes,Creativity, Motor Skills and Self-Concept in Elementary Children

Abstract

Attitudes, creativity, self-concept and motor skills were measured to determine the influence of decision-making on elementary children. Three groups of children (N = 208) were tested, one group was taught with the teacher dominating all classroom decisions, another group was encouraged to share in the decision-making, and a third group served as a control. Data were collected immediately before and after an eight-week instructional period. MANCOVA indicated that the two treatment groups had significantly higher scores than did the control group, and the shared decision-making group scored significantly higher than the teacher dominated group on measures of creativity, motor skills and self-concept. A 2 (treatment) × 2 (sex) × 5 (grade) ANOVA revealed significantly more positive attitude scores for children allowed to make decisions regarding their learning. Further, Pearson product-moment correlation showed the tested variables to be independent measures of a child's development.     

Support Base Use in Two Dance Idioms

Abstract

Recovery pulse rates following a 3-min. step test were obtained from 686 junior high school and 1,332 high school age subjects who were students in 55 different secondary schools throughout the six districts of the AAHPER. The pulse rates were converted to cardiovasular efficiency scores and from these, national standards were established for the 9–14 age group and for the 15 19 age group. The standards consisted of six categories from excellent to very poor. In addition, it was found that junior high school subjects scored better than high school subjects; that neither temperature nor time of day of testing had a significant effect on test scores; and that at the high school level the senior high school subjects in the Central district achieved the best scores of the six districts while at the junior high level the Central and Southern districts ranked together as best.     

Effects of Two Instructional Approaches on Skill Development,Knowledge, and Game Performance

Two instructional approaches that have been of interest in promoting sport have been the Sport Education Model (SEM) and the Traditional Style (TS) of teaching physical education. The purpose of this study was to investigate how SEM and TS would affect skill development, knowledge, and game performance for volleyball at the secondary level. A 2 × 3 (group × time) research design was utilized on 47 secondary students testing volleyball skills, knowledge, and game performance. Participants were placed in either the SEM or the TS via stratified randomization, and then were tested pre, mid, and post intervention through the 20-lesson volleyball unit. The 2 × 3 repeated measures Analysis of Variances (ANOVAs) with Bonferroni correction revealed no significant difference between models for skills and knowledge, but there was for game performance for group [F(1, 45) = 10.27, p < .008, η² = .19], time [F(2, 90) = 8.62, p < .008, η² = .16], and group × time interaction [F(2, 90) = 8.43, p < .008, η² = .16]. If the goal of the physical education program is to promote quality game play, the SEM may be more effective than the TS.     

Tool for Assessing Responsibility-Based Education (TARE): Instrument Development,Content Validity,and Inter-Rater Reliability

Numerous scholars have stressed the importance of personal and social responsibility in physical activity settings; however, there is a lack of instrumentation to study the implementation of responsibility-based teaching strategies. The development, content validity, and initial inter-rater reliability testing of the Tool for Assessing Responsibility-Based Education (TARE) are described here. Inter-rater agreement was calculated for paired observations focused on 2 different teachers delivering a total of 18 separate physical education lessons for students in grades 1 through 6. Findings indicate that the Tool for Assessing Responsibility-Based Education provides scores with adequate inter-rater reliability. The procedures employed in this study proved feasible and enable observers to characterize the implementation of responsibility-based teaching in physical education. The Tool for Assessing Responsibility-Based Education has numerous research and training applications relative to the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility model (Hellison, 2003 Hellison, D. 2003. Teaching responsibility through physical activity, 2nd, 15–38. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.  [Google Scholar]) and the national content standards for K–12 physical education, specifically Standard 5: Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2004 National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE). 2004. Moving into the future. National standards for physical education, 2nd, 39–43. Reston, VA: Author.  [Google Scholar]).     

Age-Related Corresponding Relationships of Controlled Force Exertion Measured by a Computer-Generated Sinusoidal and Quasi-Random Display

This study examined age-group corresponding relationships of the controlled force exertion based on sinusoidal and quasi-random waveforms in 175 right-handed male adults aged 20 to 86 years. The subjects were divided into 3 groups based on age-level: 53 young (mean age 24.6, SD?=?3.3 years), 71 middle aged (mean age 44.3, SD?=?8.7 years), and 51 elderly (mean age 69.3, SD?=?6.4 years). The participants matched their submaximal grip strength by the dominant hand to changing demand values displayed as either a sinusoidal or a quasi-random waveform appearing on the display of a personal computer. The quasi-random waveform was changed in π with amplitude and in π/2 with frequency (peak and mean frequency were 0.1 Hz in both waveforms). The participants performed the controlled force exertion test three times with a 1-min interval (one trial was 40 sec) after one practice trial using the dominant hand. The measurement order was randomly assigned. The total of the differences between the demand value and grip exertion value for 25 sec were used as an evaluation parameter. The coefficient of variance was almost the same range in all age groups in both waveforms (CV_SW ?=?30.8–35.6, CV_RW ?=?26.3–37.7), but the elderly group showed the highest value in the quasi-random waveform. Significant correlations were found among the sinusoidal and quasi-random waveforms in the young, middle-aged, and elderly groups, but significant differences were not found in the correlations among each age group. The controlled force exertion evaluation based on the sinusoidal and quasi-random waveform displays has a moderate relationship, and this relationship does not show age-level differences.     

Book Reviews

This study examined the teaching of games via a tactical approach (also known as teaching games for understanding) from the theoretical perspective of social constructivism. A pilot study (of student teachers (STs) and pupils) informed the ‘main’ study which included collecting data on 49 STs, 58 cooperating teachers (CTs) and 1177 pupils. ST data were collected through videotaping (lessons), interviews and questionnaires; CT data through interviews and questionnaires; and pupil data through questionnaires. Data analysis techniques included systematic coding of teaching behaviours through computer software, using constant comparison to code open-ended question responses, and computing frequencies of Likert-scale question responses. T-tests were used to compare pre- and post-CT workshop data. Findings suggest that STs’ teaching of the tactical approach was in line with a social constructivist perspective, in part because lessons were student-centred. Overall student activity was 53% of all lessons taught, and STs facilitated pupil learning through several question and answer scenarios. Pupils wrote that they enjoyed playing games in what amounted to ‘authentic’ settings. Their responses also suggest that learning took place through ‘legitimate peripheral participation in communities of practice’ and this facilitated pupil movement through the ‘zone of proximal development’. There were indications that pupil experiences were mediated by ST competence. CTs reported that an in-service workshop on the tactical approach and mentoring was beneficial and subsequent pairings with STs elicited positive feelings from both parties.     

Functional capacities and sport-specific skills of 14- to 15-year-old male basketball players: Size and maturity effects

Abstract

The aim of the study was to estimate the influence of body size and pubertal status on variation in functional capacities and sport-specific skills of 59 youth basketball players aged 14.0–15.9 years. Height and mass were measured and stage of pubic hair was assessed at clinical examination. Six tests of functional capacity were evaluated: squat jump, countermovement jump, 60-s sit-ups, 2-kg standing medicine ball throw, hand grip strength, and 20-m multi-stage shuttle run. Four basketball skills were tested (shooting, passing, dribbling, and defensive movements). Comparisons between basketball players of different sexual maturity status were performed using analysis of covariance (controlling for chronological age). Functional capacities and basketball skills appeared to be largely independent of pubertal status especially after controlling for variation in body size. Results of multiple linear regressions indicated chronological age as a significant predictor for four items, while maturity status was a significant predictor for only one item. The influence of body mass was negative for two functional indicators (jumping, multi-stage shuttle run) and two basketball skills (dribbling, defensive movements), but positive for two functional tests of upper body strength (hand grip, ball throw). Height was positively correlated with two specific skills (passing, defensive movements), while a combination of tallness and heaviness was associated with a disadvantage on three functional capacities and two sport-specific skills.