A Test of Schmidt's Schema Theory of Discrete Motor Skill Learning

Abstract

Schmidt's (1975) schema theory was tested with subjects who had to emit a rapid aiming response while wearing prism glasses. The glasses enabled them to view the target, but not their responding limb or the outcome of the movement. The problem was to determine the effect of (a) training with variable target practice, and (b) experiencing visual displacement information of the target, prior to training, on performance in transfer to a novel target distance. A 2 × 2 (type of practice × displacement information) factorial design was used, in which four groups of 15 male college subjects performed 60 training trials with verbal knowledge of results. The groups with variable target practice had less error on initial transfer to the novel target and throughout transfer than the groups with nonvariable target practice. No evidence was found to indicate that rate of learning for a novel target distance during transfer in the absence of KR is a positive function of the variability of target practice in training. Nor was any effect found for experiencing visual displacement information on performance in transfer.     

Sex and Athletic Status as Factors in Reaction Latency and Movement Time

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of sex and athletic status on reaction latencies and movement time. One hundred subjects, categorized into five groups of 20 subjects each—male athletes (MA), female athletes (FA), male nonathletes (MNA), female nonathletes (FNA), and control group (CG)—were tested over a period of five consecutive days. Several different types of incentives were used to ensure that subjects provided the fastest times possible. Two blocks of 25 trials were administered to each subject on each day. A 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 2 mixed factorial analysis of variance was used to test for between-subject differences of group (experimental/control), sex, and athletic status and for within-subject differences of days and blocks. The four dependent variables were reaction time (RT) mean, RT consistency, movement time (MT) mean, and MT consistency. Results did not support the classic finding of male superiority over females in RT/MT or athletes' superiority over nonathletes. Evidence of athletic superiority emerged, but for the first day of practice only. As subjects were allowed extended practice over a 5-day test period in which knowledge of results (KR) and other incentives were provided, differences in the experimental groups disappeared. Sex was the predominant factor in consistency, with males being less variable in RT (p = .02) performance than females. There were no sex differences in MT consistency.     

Trends in the Selection of Coaches for Female Athletes: A Demographic Inquiry

Abstract

Data were collected from 335 collegiate female athletic directors utilizing a questionnaire designed to assess trends in selecting coaches for female athletes between 1974 and 1979. These demographic results revealed: (a) a 37% increase in the number of coaches for female athletes, (b) a greater increase at the assistant (229%) rather than head (8%) coach level, (c) a substantial increase in male coaches (724) in comparison to their female counterparts (44), (d) a significant decline (294) in female head coaches, and (e) a large increase in the number of male head coaches (437). As the bases for this present investigation, current practices and affirmative action strategies were discussed (i.e., gender employment trends, de facto discrimination, federal civil rights legislation). Possible explanations of these findings were offered.     

Stimulus Velocity,Duration and Uncertainty as Determiners of Response Structure and Timing Accuracy

Abstract

The present experiments examined the effects of stimulus velocity, stimulus duration, and stimulus uncertainty on the spatial-temporal structure and timing accuracy of coincident timing responses. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that the response structure for aimed movements differed from that of ballistic movements but response accuracy was comparable for both movement conditions. However, when information concerning the stimulus velocity was provided, the responses to the faster stimuli (i.e., stimuli of shorter duration) appeared to be “speeded up” copies of those to slower stimuli and response accuracy increased as the stimulus velocity increased (i.e., stimulus duration decreased). When the stimulus velocity was not known, subjects initiated a common response for approximately 260 msec and response accuracy appeared to decrease as the stimulus velocity increased (i.e., stimulus duration decreased). Experiment 2 indicated that the stimulus duration rather than the stimulus velocity was the major determiner of both the spatial-temporal structure and timing accuracy and that a very fast and a very slow stimulus will be responded to similarly when the stimulus duration remains constant.     

Responses to Forces Influencing Cohesion As a Function of Player Status and Level of Male Varsity Basketball Competition

Abstract

This exploratory study determined if the responses of male varsity basketball players to six factors influencing cohesion were a function of level of competitive intensity and/or the importance of the players to their team. Players on intact teams from five levels of competition – elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, small college and large college–responded to a cohesion questionnaire at the end of the season. Coaches designated five players with the most game playing time as “starters” and five players with the least game playing time as “reserves.” A team factor score for Team Performance Satisfaction, Self Performance Satisfaction, Task Cohesion, Affiliation Cohesion, Desire for Recognition and Value of Membership was calculated. Each team factor score served as the dependent variable in a 2 (player status) × 5 (level of competition) analysis ofcovariance design, with teams nested in the second factor. The won-loss record served as the covariate. Results indicated that “starters” were more satisfied with their own performance, were more task conscious, had a greater affiliation desire, and valued their membership on the team to a greater degree than the “reserves.” The elementary and junior high school team members were significantly more satisfied with the team's performance, were more satisfied with their own self performance, were more affiliation conscious, and valued their team membership to a greater degree than did college team members. The interaction between player status and level of competition was not significant for any of the factor scores.     

The Effects of Age and Number of Demonstrations on Modeling of Form and Performance

Abstract

This study was designed to investigate the effects of age and number of demonstrations on both form (strategy employed) and physical performance on a Bachman ladder-balance task. College age (n = 60) and elementary age females (n = 60) were compared under four modeling conditions consisting of no, four, eight, and 12 demonstrations in an Age Group × Demonstration Group (2 × 4) MANOVA. Results indicated that college age students had higher performance and form scores than elementary age students. Only form differentiated the four demonstration groups. Participants receiving 12 demonstrations had higher form scores than the control participants. Form scores were analyzed in a discriminant function analysis to determine which of five form components differentiated the four demonstration groups. Results also revealed that climbing quickly was the component of form that differentiated the groups the most. It was concluded that matching form by the learner may be a more effective measure of modeling effects rather than inferring modeling from performance, especially in the initial stages of learning. In addition, it appears that the number of demonstrations needed to create modeling effects is task specific and dependent on the length of the practice period.     

The Kinematics and Kinetics of the Running Pattern of Two-, Four-, and Six-Year-Old Children

Abstract

Selected kinematic and kinetic variables in the running pattern of 2-, 4-, and 6-year-old children were investigated. Cinematographic records and force-plate tracings were used to study the running patterns of the 28 Caucasian subjects, 15 male and 13 female. A 2 × 3 (sex × age) factorial analysis of variance was used to determine whether effects of variation between and within age and sex factors for each of the dependent variables of selected kinematic (displacement and velocity) and kinetic (ground reaction force) variables were significant. The running speeds improved with age. Although height and weight gains influenced the improvement shown in performance, certain biomechanical variables also contributed to the development of the running pattern. In the majority of the selected kinematic and kinetic variables there were significant differences between the 2-year-old group and the other two groups. Where there were significant differences in the variables, the differences tended to be in displacement, velocity, and magnitude of force measures, rather than in time of occurrence measures. Significant differences between male and female subjects appeared in five kinematic variables related to the swing leg.     

Book Reviews

Abstract

Carter, J. E. Lindsay, and Heath, Barbara Honeyman. Somatotyping: Development and Applications. (Cambridge Studies in Biological Anthropology, 5). Cambridge: Cambridge Univenity Press, 1990. pp. xiv, 503. Reviewed by Gaston Beunen, Study Centre for Physical Development Research, Institute of Physical Education, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

Clark, Jane E., &; Humphrey, J. H. (Eds.). Advances in Motor Development Research (Vol. 3). New York: AMS Press, 1990. pp. xi, 259. Index, references. Reviewed by Mary Ann Roberton, Bowling Green State University

Kyle, Donald G., and Stark, Gary D. (Ed.), Essays on sport History and sport Mythology. College Station, TX: Texas A&;M University Press, for the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. vi, 154. Reviewed by Synthia S. Slowikowski, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

MacDougall, J. D., Wenger, H. A., &; Green, H. J. (Eds.). Physiologiml Testing ofthe High Peifonnance Athlete. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1991. Pp, vii, 424. Tables, figures, photos, references. Reviewed by Paul Vaccaro, University of Maryland

Malina, Robert M., and Bouchard, C. Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetia, 1991, pp. 501. Index. Reviewed by Kathleen Haywood, University of Missouri–St. Louis

Metzler, M. Instructional Supervision for Physical Education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1990. pp. vii, 248. References, index. Reviewed by Paul Paese, Southwest Texas State University

Parkhouse, Bonnie L, (Ed.). The Management of Sport: Its Foundation and Application. St. Louis: Mosby–Year Book, 1991, Pp. xviii, 404. Reviewed by Kathleen Davis, Northeastern University

Thomas, Jerry R., and Nelson, Jack K. Researda Methods in Physical Activity (2nd ed.), Champaign, Il.: Human Kinetics. 1990. 568 pp. Appendixes. Reviewed by Susan J. Hall, California State University, Northridge

Wells, Christine L. Women, sport, and Performance: A Physiological Perspective (2nd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 1991, 367 pp. Reviewed by Ann Ward, University of Massachusetts Medical Center     

《楞严经疏解蒙钞》的文献学价值

《楞严经疏解蒙钞》是钱谦益晚年的一部佛经疏释的力作,是他反经明教的佛教改革思想的具体体现,显示出了钱氏作为学者式文人的学术修养,在佛经文献疏钞类著作中具有独到的文献价值,在目录、校勘等方面都显示出钱氏深厚的文献学功力。     

Specificity of a Maximal Step Exercise Test

To adhere to the principle of “exercise specificity” exercise testing should be completed using the same physical activity that is performed during exercise training. The present study was designed to assess whether aerobic step exercisers have a greater maximal oxygen consumption (max VO₂) when tested using an activity specific, maximal step exercise test (SET; arms and legs) versus a maximal running test (legs only). Female aerobic step exercisers (N=18; 20.7 ± 1.5 years) performed three maximal graded exercise tests (GXTs): 2 SETs; 1 treadmill test (TMT). The SET consisted of six 3-min progressive stages of alternate lead, basic step, basic step with biceps curls, knee raise with pull-down, repeater knee with pull-down, lateral lunge with pull-down, and side squat with shoulder presses. Stepping rate was 32 steps· min^?1 on an 8-in (20.32 cm) step for stages 1–3, and a 10-in (25.4 cm) step for stages 4–6. Submaximal and maximal heart rate (HR) and oxygen consumption (VO₂) were recorded at the end of each stage. Test–retest reliability for the first five stages of the SET ranged from .91 to .97 for HR, and from .84 to .96 for VO₂. Maximal HR was significantly greater (p =.0001) for the SET (200 ± 6.2 beats·min^?1) as compared to the TMT (193 ± 7.9 beats·min^?1). No significant difference was found for max VO₂ (42.9 ± 8.5, 41.2 ± 5.9 ml·kg^?1·min^?1, p =.14). The SET was a valid and reliable protocol for assessing responses of these aerobic step exercisers; however, max VO₂ from a TMT did not differ significantly from the SET. Conversely, max HR obtained from the criterion TMT was 7 beats·min^?1 lower than from the SET. If a training HR for step exercise (arms and legs exercise) is prescribed based on the max HR from treadmill exercise (legs only), then the training HR should be calculated from a TMT max HR that has been increased by 7 beats·min^?1 to obtain an intensity of step exercise comparable to that of running.