Counseling-Orientation Preferences: American and Australian Comparative Data

This study investigated counseling-orientation preferences of samples of counselor trainees in the United States and Australia using the Counseling-Orientation Scale. The authors compare the preferences in theoretical orientations and discuss the two major findings primarily in terms of the cultural characteristics of the two nations.     

A COMPARISON OF THREE METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING MINIMUM STANDARDS ON THE NATIONAL TEACHER EXAMINATIONS

Minimum standards were established for the National Teacher Examinations (NTE) area examinations in mathematics and in elementary education by independent panels of teacher educators who had been instructed in the use of either the Angoff, Nedelsky, or Jaeger procedures. Of these three procedures, only the Jaeger method requires that normative data be provided to the judges when evaluating the items. However, it was of interest to study the effect such information would have upon the standards obtained using the other two methods. Therefore, the design incorporated three sequential review sessions with the level of normative information different for each. A three-factor ANOVA revealed significant main effects for methods and sessions but not for subject area. None of the interactions was significant. The anticipated failure rates, the psychometric characteristics of the ratings, and other factors suggest that the Angoff procedure, as modified during the second session of this study, yields the most defensible standards for the NTE area examinations.     

Counselor Supervision as a Function of Trainee Experience: Analysis of Specific Behaviors

Fifty-one supervisees varying in both experience and training (a) judged 44 specific supervisor behaviors for the frequency that they were implemented in supervision and (b) judged supervision effectiveness, which was assessed on five separate scales. Factor analysis of the supervisor behaviors revealed four factors: Evaluative Support, Time/Structure, Method of Supervision, and Rapport. Results from multivariate analysis of variance showed that one factor, Method of Supervision, was statistically significant with beginning trainees emphasizing more the mechanics and task of supervision. Other trends showed that experienced supervisees entertained a less structured interaction with supervisors that was more supportive and considered more effective. Analysis of specific supervisor behaviors gave support to the notion that supervision over time can be conceptualized as a developmental process.     

Design Expertise Amongst Student Designers

This report of a series of protocol studies of designers at varying levels of competence examines the pedagogical system of integrating developing skills with increasing project complexity as a definition of design expeitise. It comments on different kinds of problem-solving strategies which are used to ensure the appropriateness of the aims of design education, and assesses the relative importance that novelty and creativity, uncertainty and information, imagination and constructive thought, and drawing and modelling play in the maturation of designers. The results show a lack of predictability, but that the abilities needed for design expertise can be articulated and developed as educational programmes.     

ESTABLISHING MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR ESSAYS: BLIND VERSUS INFORMED RÉVIEWS

This study was undertaken to evaluate two procedures for establishing a minimum performance standard for the essay subtest of the National Teacher Examinations (NTE) Communication Skills test. Twenty public school teachers and 20 teacher educators were randomly assigned to either a "blind" or "informed" review panel. Both panels were directed to evaluate the same set of 12 sample essays. Those assigned to the informed panel were apprised of the scores previously awarded to each essay and were asked to decide upon the lowest score they would judge to be acceptable for a beginning teacher. Those assigned to the blind panel were not informed of the scores and were asked to judge whether each essay was at least minimally acceptable for a beginning teacher. Following their blind reviews, the scores were revealed to this group, and they were also asked to indicate the lowest score they would judge to be acceptable. No significant mean differences were observed for the standards associated with blind and informed reviews, but a significant mean difference was observed between the standards set by teachers and teacher educators; the former being more stringent. Based upon criteria other than mean differences, it was concluded that the preferred procedure for setting standards on essays should involve a blind review followed by an informed review. This strategy was subsequently implemented in a state-wide validation study in Virginia, and the results of this full-scale study are presented along with results reported for a study using informed reviews in another state.