Learning objectives for science practicals at traditional and distance universities

This study is designed to determine whether, and to what extent, the perceived importance of objectives of undergraduate practicals in the Natural Sciences is dependent upon the type of institute at which practicals are given. The two dimensions used in this research to discriminate between types of institutes are type of education offered (face‐to‐face versus correspondence) and type of programme offered (monodisciplinary versus interdisciplinary). For this reason, distance universities throughout the world (DUs) and more traditional, residential universities (RUs) in The Netherlands were compared. Special attention has been paid to the Open university of The Netherlands (OuN). The results show that RUs and DUs approach practicals in a very similar manner with both of them differing in a number of respects with the OuN. Implications of this research for the use of practicals in a curriculum in the Natural Sciences are presented.     

An experimental,video-based investigation into the motivating impact of choice and positive feedback among students with different motor competence levels

ABSTRACT

Background: Research stemming from Self-Determination Theory (SDT) shows that physical education (PE) teachers who endorse an autonomy-supportive and structuring motivating style positively affect students’ motivation, engagement and learning. Choice provision and positive feedback are two concrete strategies that are part of an autonomy-supportive and structuring style, respectively. While the benefits of choice provision and positive feedback have been shown in contexts other than PE, evidence in the specific context of PE is much scarcer. Grounded in SDT and relying on experimental design, the present study sought to examine the effects of choice provision and positive feedback on students’ motivational experiences in PE, and whether these effects were moderated by students’ actual motor competence (AMC).

Method: A sample of 277 students (41% boys, Mage?=?12.78 years) was randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions (2?×?2 design). Prior to the experimental manipulation, participants’ AMC was measured with the Test of Gross Motor Development second edition. Participants then watched a videotaped PE lesson, in which the provision of choice (choice – no choice) and type of feedback (corrective feedback – positive and corrective feedback) were manipulated. Participants were asked to imagine how they would feel being a student in the displayed lessons. After watching the video, they completed validated questionnaires on their (1) anticipated need satisfaction and frustration and (2) autonomous and controlled motivation. MANOVAs were conducted to investigate the differences between the experimental groups in terms of anticipated need satisfaction, need frustration and motivation. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to examine the potential moderating role of AMC.

Findings and conclusions: The benefits of choice provision were clearly shown with students in the choice condition anticipating significantly more autonomy, competence and relatedness satisfaction and autonomous motivation, while they anticipated significantly less autonomy and relatedness frustration when compared to students in the no choice condition. Similarly, the addition of positive feedback to corrective feedback yielded clear benefits, with lower averages in anticipated need frustration found among students who watched the videos in which positive feedback was added to corrective feedback. No support was provided for a synergetic motivational effect between choice and positive feedback. Overall, the present findings show the importance of offering choice and providing positive feedback to motivate students in PE, with positive effects being present for all students independent of their initial AMC levels. Although few interaction effects were found, lowly motor competent students benefited even more from receiving positive feedback than highly motor competent students. The findings of this study are important to take into account in PE teacher education programs and professional training programs for PE teachers about how to teach in a (more) motivating way.     

The use of accelerometry in adolescents and its implementation with non-wear time activity diaries in free-living conditions

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of a non-wearing time activity diary (hereafter non-wear activity diary) when using accelerometry in adolescents to provide insight into their physical activity levels. In total, 213 Belgian adolescents (89 boys, 124 girls) were eligible for this study. Adolescents wore an accelerometer for seven consecutive days and kept a non-wear activity diary. On the last day, they completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents. The differences between the accelerometer data with and without use of the non-wear activity diary were significant for all physical activity intensities according to the Wilcoxon signed rank test. Bland-Altman plots showed that with more time spent in any physical activity intensity, the difference between including and not including the non-wear activity diary increased. The correlation coefficient between the International Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents and the accelerometer data increased when the non-wear activity diary was included. Differences in the percentage of adolescents reaching the physical activity recommendations between the accelerometer data only and the accelerometer with the non-wear activity diary were significant. We conclude that if the non-wear activity diary data are not included, some adolescents could be misclassified as not being physically active according to the physical activity recommendations. It is therefore recommended to use a non-wear activity diary for gaining insight into the physical activity levels of individuals.     

Different combinations of perceived autonomy support and control: identifying the most optimal motivating style

Background: According to Self-Determination Theory, teachers and sport coaches can differ in the motivating style they rely upon to motivate young people. When endorsing an autonomy-supportive motivating style, instructors try to identify, vitalize, and nurture youngsters’ inner motivational resources. In contrast, instructors with a dominant controlling motivating style rather pressure youngsters to think, feel, or behave in prescribed ways. While the dimensions of autonomy support and control can be conceptually differentiated, in reality both dimensions may co-occur to different degrees.

Purpose: The present study investigates to what extent perceived autonomy support and control can be combined and which motivating style then yields the most optimal pattern of outcomes.

Research design: Multi-Study with Cross-Sectional Design.

Findings: In two studies, conducted among elite athletes (N?=?202; M_age?=?15.63; SD?=?1.70) and students in physical education (N?=?647; M_age?=?13.27; SD?=?0.68) reporting on their instructor’s motivating style, cluster analyses systematically pointed towards the extraction of four motivating profiles. Two of these groups were characterized by the dominant presence of either autonomy support (i.e. high-autonomy support) or control (i.e. high control), while the two dimensions were found to be equally present in the two remaining groups (i.e. high–high or low–low). Results revealed that the high-autonomy support group showed to the most optimal pattern of outcomes (e.g. need satisfaction, autonomous motivation), while the high-control group yielded the least optimal pattern of outcomes. Results further showed that perceiving one’s instructor as high on control is detrimental (e.g. higher need frustration, amotivation) even when the instructor is additionally perceived to be autonomy-supportive. Finally, it appeared better to be relatively uninvolved than to be perceived as exclusively high on control.

Conclusions: When coaches or teachers are perceived to be high on autonomy support and low on control, this is likely to benefit youngsters’ motivation and well-being. Also, while some instructors, particularly those who are functioning in a more competitive context where pressure is considered more normative, may endorse the belief that the combination of autonomy support and control yields the most effective cocktail to motivate young people (e.g. using competitive and game-based activities to make it fun, while treating ‘the losers’ with punishments such as push-ups or humiliating comments), this perspective is not supported by the findings of the current study. Apart, from its theoretical relevance, the findings of the present study are valuable for future intervention development.     

Identifying profiles of actual and perceived motor competence among adolescents: associations with motivation,physical activity,and sports participation

The present study identified adolescents’ motor competence (MC)-based profiles (e.g., high actual and low perceived MC), and accordingly investigated differences in motivation for physical education (PE), physical activity (PA) levels, and sports participation between profiles by using regression analyses. Actual MC was measured with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder. Adolescents (n = 215; 66.0% boys; mean age = 13.64 ± .58 years) completed validated questionnaires to assess perceived MC, motivation for PE, PA-levels, and sports participation. Actual and perceived MC were only moderately correlated and cluster analyses identified four groups. Two groups of overestimators (low – overestimation, average – overestimation) were identified (51%), who particularly displayed better motivation for PE when compared to their peers who accurately estimated themselves (low – accurate, average – accurate). Moreover, adolescents with low actual MC, but high perceived MC were significantly more active than adolescents with low actual MC who accurately estimated themselves. Results pointed in the same direction for organised sports participation. Underestimators were not found in the current sample, which is positive as underestimation might negatively influence adolescents’ motivation to achieve and persist in PA and sports. In conclusion, results emphasise that developing perceived MC, especially among adolescents with low levels of actual MC, seems crucial to stimulate motivation for PE, and engagement in PA and sports.     

The use of accelerometry in adolescents and its implementation with non-wear time activity diaries in free-living conditions

The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of a non-wearing time activity diary (hereafter non-wear activity diary) when using accelerometry in adolescents to provide insight into their physical activity levels. In total, 213 Belgian adolescents (89 boys, 124 girls) were eligible for this study. Adolescents wore an accelerometer for seven consecutive days and kept a non-wear activity diary. On the last day, they completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents. The differences between the accelerometer data with and without use of the non-wear activity diary were significant for all physical activity intensities according to the Wilcoxon signed rank test. Bland-Altman plots showed that with more time spent in any physical activity intensity, the difference between including and not including the non-wear activity diary increased. The correlation coefficient between the International Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents and the accelerometer data increased when the non-wear activity diary was included. Differences in the percentage of adolescents reaching the physical activity recommendations between the accelerometer data only and the accelerometer with the non-wear activity diary were significant. We conclude that if the non-wear activity diary data are not included, some adolescents could be misclassified as not being physically active according to the physical activity recommendations. It is therefore recommended to use a non-wear activity diary for gaining insight into the physical activity levels of individuals.     

Practical work at the Open University of the Netherlands

Achieving practical objectives in an open distance educational system is a real challenge. Its philosophy requires self-instructional materials that students can study at their own time, place, and pace. Practical work, in particular laboratory work, can test the limits of this philosophy. A new way of thinking about practical work and modern electronic media make it possible to develop a natural sciences degree program with a minimum amount of laboratory sessions and, hopefully, to pursue practical aims which are useful in the student's later profession. The way the Open University of the Netherlands has been developing a practical program according to these starting points is discussed in the first part of this paper. Examples of alternatives for traditional practical work are described in more detail in the second part. Advantages and disadvantages with regards to traditional practical work are discussed.     

The laboratory in higher science education: Problems,premises and objectives

A university study in the natural sciences, devoid of a practical component such as laboratory work is virtually unthinkable. One could even go so far as saying that it is extremely rare for anyone to question the necessity of laboratory work in either high school or university science curricula. Laboratory work is simply part of the science game. This article discusses the problems concerning the use of the laboratory as didactic tool in the educational process, the premises underlying its use in science education and different approaches to its implementation as described in recent literature. This article is primarily directed at a clarification and explicitation of objectives and of their implementation in laboratory work at the Dutch Open University. The effective and efficient use of time spent in the laboratory is a necessity for all educational institutions, but especially for an institution for distance education.     

Audiotape feedback for essays in distance education

Students who were required to write three short essays for a university level course on photochemistry at the Open university of the Netherlands received either audio-cassette or written feedback on their essays. The students receiving the audio feedback described their experience as personal, enjoyable, complete and clear. Those receiving written feedback described their experience as adequate. The amount of time spent by instructors supplying the feedback differed minimally (X_audio=53 minutes per student; X_written=49 minutes) with the major difference lying in the amount of time spent in preparation. This difference, possibly attributable to novelty with audio as a mode for feedback, was not significant. The amount communicated to the students with audio feedback (per instructor) was significantly greater than the amount communicated with written feedback. There was no difference in the final grades for the two groups of students.Paul A. Kirschner received his Masters in Educational Psychology from the State University of Amsterdam. He has worked as educational technologist at the Open university of the Netherlands since 1983, primarily with the faculties of Natural Sciences and Engineering. Henk van den Brink received his Masters in Educational Psychology from the State University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. He has worked at the Open university of the Netherlands since 1984 as an educational technologist, primarily with the Faculty of Economics. Marthie Meester received her Ph.D. in Chemistry from the State University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. She has worked since 1983 at the Faculty of Natural Sciences of the Open university of the Netherlands as course team chair for a number of undergraduate and graduate level chemistry courses.