When to Randomize: Lessons From Independent Impact Evaluation of Reading to Learn (RtL) Programme to Improve Literacy and Numeracy in Kenya and Uganda

In East Africa, there is great effort directed toward ensuring that there is learning and value for money invested in universal education policies initiated over the past decade. Kenya and Uganda are two countries that typify this effort. The effort includes the work of research organisations such as Uwezo, which assess learning levels; RTI, which assesses language and early grade reading; and the work of African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), which looks at schooling patterns of different households. All these studies paint a disappointing picture both for the universal access Education for All policy and the large sums of money that have been devoted to achieve it. The verdict is that too many pupils in schools are not learning and too many poor ones are excluded from universal public access. Uwezo reports that 70% of pupils in Grade 3 cannot do Grade 2 work, and 9% of those completing Primary 8 in Kenya cannot do Grade 2 work. Answers are not easy to find, so borrowing what has worked elsewhere has been attempted. This article presents one effort toward finding what can work to improve learning for pupils in early grades. It is based on the idea of “Reading to Learn” implemented elsewhere and attempted in East Africa by Aga Khan Foundation and independently evaluated by APHRC using randomization methods. Lessons presented highlight the role and complexities of randomization in addressing the educational challenges in East Africa.     

Association between mothers' education and grade six children numeracy and literacy in Kenya

The objective of the paper is to re-examine the mother–child education achievement hypothesis, by re-examining the effect of mother's education, on math and literacy test scores of children in Kenya. Data come from the classroom Education Research Programme at the African Population and Health Research Centre which was collected between January and March 2012. Since pupils are nested within schools, we fitted a two-level random intercept model. Our findings show that mothers' and fathers' education has a positive and significant independent association with literacy and numeracy achievement. After interacting mothers' and fathers' education and controlling for school and pupil characteristics, we observed two significant findings: (1) mother's education remains statistically significant but is negatively associated with the pupil's score in both literacy and numeracy; and (2) the interaction of both parents' education is significant and positively associated with pupil scores in literacy and numeracy. This study underscores the importance of the complementarity between mothers' and fathers' education in order for children to acquire and learn literacy and numeracy in schools. In as much as mothers' education is important in the children's literacy and numeracy, the importance of fathers in children's literacy and numeracy cannot be ignored.     

Educational challenges and diminishing family safety net faced by high-school girls in a slum residence, Nairobi, Kenya

In 2010, there was a slight decrease in the number of out-of school adolescents from 75 million in 2009 (UNESCO, 2009) to 71 million in 2010, of which 55% are girls (UNESCO, 2010). In Kenya, only 17% of girls have secondary education (CBS, 2004). This paper analyzes the role of families in girls’ secondary education in two schools within Nairobi province, Kenya. Data were obtained from interviews with adolescent girls attending Kamu and Lafama¹ schools in Nairobi province, the dropouts, and a sample of teachers. Results show girls’ lives and opportunities were socially constructed and this permeated into the families, influencing the way parents treated their daughters. This further provided a fertile ground for sexual harassment that plagued girls within their own families. The Kenyan Government needs to influence women and girls perceptions, through increasing campaigns from the grassroots on the importance of being committed to girls’ education.     

Why do pupils dropout when education is ‘free’? Explaining school dropout among the urban poor in Nairobi

The introduction of universal primary education in sub-Sahara African countries in the 1990s increased enrolment rates and provided opportunities to children who were previously not in school. Research demonstrates that eliminating fees is not the magic bullet that delivers universal access. This study seeks to determine risk factors associated with dropout among primary school children in the low-income areas of Nairobi. Qualitative data is from the Education Research Program, collected between June and July 2008. The study found that: dumpsites in the two slum sites of Korogocho and Viwandani lure children out of school; school levies still charged in schools keep children out of school; and chronic poverty within families lure girls aged 14–16 into transactional sex. In conclusion, the declaration of free primary education is not sufficient to realize improved educational attainment as dropout after initial entry negates the purpose for which it was introduced.     

Influence of mothers' education on children's maths achievement in Kenya

Research shows that fathers' level of education predicts achievement of both boys and girls, with significantly greater effect for boys. Similarly, mothers' level of education predicts the achievement of girls but not boys. This study tests the mother–child education achievement hypothesis, by examining the effect of mothers' education on the maths test score of children, using data from 71 schools across 6 districts in Kenya. The findings of a multilevel random intercept model, based on a sample of 1907 learners reveal surprisingly negative effect of mothers' education on pupil's achievement, with an interaction effect of mother's and father's education being positive.     

Randomized impact evaluation of education interventions: experiences and lessons from a reading to learn intervention in East Africa

This paper presents the experiences and lessons learnt during the design and implementation of the randomized impact evaluation (IE) of a reading to learn (RtL) intervention in early primary grades. The study was to assess the impact of RtL on literacy and numeracy among pupils in low-performing districts in East Africa. The intervention was designed in a way that in each country one district implemented an intervention package that included teacher training, and teaching and learning materials; while the other district implemented this same package with an additional parental involvement component. Baseline data were collected in mid-2009 in Grades 1 and 2, and in 2010 for the incoming Grade 1. The endline data were collected in mid-2011. A total of 119 treatments and 110 control schools participated in the study. The randomized design provided an opportunity to attribute causality and also qualitatively establish pathways through which the intervention impacted on learning. The paper provides lessons learnt and demonstrates how the challenges faced during the evaluation were addressed. Additionally, the paper shows how IE was utilized to provide robust evidence of what works thus enabling policy-makers to make decisions on sustainability and scale-up of education interventions.     

Determinants of educational exclusion: Poor urban girls' experiences in- and out-of-school in Kenya

The educational challenges girls face are often explained by economics. However, gender norms and identities, constructed historically but subject to change, also play a crucial role. In Kenya, little attention has been paid to the negative social constructions that keep girls from attaining the education they want. This article analyses the role of social construction among girls who are in and out of two secondary schools in Nairobi province, Kenya. Data were obtained from interviews with adolescent girls attending the schools, female dropouts previously affiliated with those two schools, and teachers at the schools. All the challenges that girls faced in attempting to secure secondary education were linked to social construction; they were deeply rooted in gender roles as defined by the cultural context and reinforced by socialisation. Based on the results, the authors hold that women must lead community efforts toward changes that will enhance their daughters’ educational opportunities.