Integrating control generated by positive and negative reinforcement on an operant baseline: Appetitive-aversive interactions

The interaction of opposing motivational states was measured within a design in which rats barpressed for food in one stimulus and to avoid shock in another. Tone and light discriminative stimuli (Sds) were counterbalanced over incentive conditions. Extinction eliminated responding when neither Sd was present. To minimize the influence of competing peripheral operants or reinforcer-elicited behaviors during appetitive-aversive interactions, contingency parameters were manipulated to generate similar rates and patterns of barpressing in both Sds and stimulus-compounding tests were administered in extinction. On these tests, rates in tone, light, and tone plus light (T+L) were equivalent. In contrast, when the same reinforcer (i.e., food or shock avoidance) maintained comparable training rates in tone and in light, in testing, T+L controlled double the rates of the single stimuli—strong additive summation. These results were strikingly similar to those of single-incentive experiments concerned with the contribution of excitatory and inhibitory incentive states to the results of stimulus compounding. Simultaneously presenting two Sds whose implicit stimulus-reinforcer (S-S^r) contingencies were arranged to make them, respectively, conditioned appetitive and aversive exciters (present experiment) produced test results comparable to those of two Sds whose implicit S-S^r contingencies were arranged to make them both conditioned inhibitors. Reciprocal antagonism between these two motive states more than neutralizes them. It appears to produce a negative (i.e., an inhibitory) motive state.     

Fathers' and Mothers' Parenting Predicting and Responding to Adolescent Sexual Risk Behaviors

Transactional models of problem behavior argue that less effective parenting and adolescent problem behaviors coevolve, exerting bidirectional influences. This article extends such models by analyzing growth trajectories of sexual risk behaviors and parenting processes among 3,206 adolescents (aged 13–18) and their residential parents. Within individuals, increases in regular family activities prospectively predicted declines in adolescents' risky sexual activities. In contrast, increases in risky sexual activities predicted heightened father knowledge. Between-individual comparisons revealed bidirectional links between more involved parenting, particularly family activities and father knowledge, and lower adolescent risky sexual activity. Results highlight the importance of family activities as a protective force for adolescents and suggest that fathers may react differently than mothers in the face of youth problem behaviors.     

Adolescent smoking from a functional perspective: The Berlin-Bremen Study

Longitudinal data from the «Berlin-Bremen Study on Health Behavior» are used to investigate smoking transitions between different stages of smoking. 1357 seventh and eighth graders were asked about their smoking behavior, their expectations with regard to smoking, smoking in their environment, and their self-image in Fall, 1983. 86% and 81% participated again one and two years later, respectively. Analyses of carbon monoxide and serum thiocyanate levels revealed adequate validity for self-reported smoking behavior. Rates of smoking were dramatically different for different educational strata. Direct and indirect functions of smoking are distinguished. The «indirect» function refers to smoking as a means of obtaining access to peer groups, thus increasing one’s psychological well-being. Direct functions refer to social and affective effects of smoking such as looking older or calming down. In line with expectations, indirect functions were found to be more important for younger adolescents and for smoking onset. In contrast, direct functions were better predictors of the smoking behavior of older adolescents and of the transition to regular smoking.     

SOME PROBLEMS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN GERMANY

The underlying premise of this article is that the best way to become acquainted with higher education in Germany is to discuss its problems. Such problems as expanding enrollments, the role of research and teaching, the link between higher education and future employment, the question of the supposed equality of German universities, the link between regional development and higher education, and the question of the duration of studies are briefly discussed in light of the tension between the universities and the Fachhochschulen. The hint is made that the Fachhochschulen are more successful pedagogically than are the universities.     

Boon and bane of being sure: the effect of performance certainty and expectancy on task performance

Previous research has suggested certainty to be an important factor when investigating effects of level of expectancies on future behavior. With the present study, we addressed the interplay of expectancy certainty and level of expectancies regarding task performance. We assumed that certain performance expectancies provide a better basis for the regulation of persistence and, therefore, lead to improved performance when people expect to perform well. However, when people have bad performance expectations, being certain (compared to being uncertain) about this expectation decreases motivation to work hard on the task because it is assumed it will not pay off anyway. Accordingly, in our study, we found that the performance of participants with high performance expectancies increased with increasing expectancy certainty. By contrast, performance of participants with low performance expectancies decreased with increasing expectancy certainty. Additionally, certainty and expectancy were shown to be unrelated, supporting the idea that they are independent constructs.