Multivariate Behavioral Genetic Analysis of Parenting in Early Childhood

Objective. Caregivers play an important role in child development; in addition to instilling their norms and values in their children through socialization, caregivers modify their parenting practices in response to children’s characteristics. Previous studies have documented child genetic effects on parenting behaviors, but multivariate behavioral genetic examinations of parenting are scarce. Design. The current study examined the multivariate structure of child genetic and environmental influences on parenting in a sample of 236 individual twins aged 0–5 years, providing a total of 542 observations. Results. “Shared environments” (between-family environmental differences that are shared by twins reared in the same home, including parental characteristics, family socioeconomic status, and neighborhood characteristics) account for the majority of variation in parenting practices, whereas child genetic effects are more modest and occur more on specific parenting practices. Conclusion. Caregivers generally engage in similar parenting across children reared together and, at the same time, adjust their broad parenting approach and particularly their specific practices in response to genetically driven child characteristics. Future research may benefit from using a multidimensional framework to examine the different components and age-related transformations in these parent-driven and child-driven processes.     

Early Shared Reading,Socioeconomic Status,and Children’s Cognitive and School Competencies: Six Years of Longitudinal Evidence

This study explored longitudinal associations between early shared reading at 2 to 3 years of age and children’s later academic achievement. It examined the mediating role of children’s vocabulary and early academic skills, and the moderating effects of family’s socioeconomic status. Data were drawn from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (n = 4,768). Academic achievement was assessed at 8 to 9 years of age via standardized national test scores of literacy and mathematics achievement. Results indicated that early shared reading was associated with children’s academic achievement directly and indirectly through receptive vocabulary and early academic skills. Also, the frequency of early shared reading predicted the outcome measures, over and above other home learning activities. Associations were stronger among low and middle socioeconomic status groups compared to the high socioeconomic status group. We conclude that shared reading offers unique opportunities for adults to teach young children new words and concepts.     

Learning Motivation Mediates Gene-by-Socioeconomic Status Interaction on Mathematics Achievement in Early Childhood

There is accumulating evidence that genetic influences on achievement are more pronounced among children living in higher socioeconomic status homes, and that these gene-by-environment interactions occur prior to children's entry into formal schooling. We hypothesized that one pathway through which socioeconomic status promotes genetic influences on early achievement is by facilitating the processes by which children select, evoke, and attend to learning experiences that are consistent with genetically influenced individual differences in their motivation to learn. We examined this hypothesis in a nationally representative sample of approximately 650 pairs of four-year old identical and fraternal twins who were administered a measure of math achievement, and rated by their parents on a broad set of items assessing learning motivation. Results indicated a genetic link between learning motivation and math achievement that varied positively with family socioeconomic status: Genetic differences in learning motivation contributed to math achievement more strongly in more advantaged homes. Once this effect of learning motivation was controlled for, gene-by-socioeconomic status interaction on math achievement was reduced from previously significant levels, to nonsignificant levels.     

Intellectual interest mediates gene × socioeconomic status interaction on adolescent academic achievement

Recent studies have demonstrated that genetic influences on cognitive ability and academic achievement are larger for children raised in higher socioeconomic status (SES) homes. However, little work has been done to document the psychosocial processes that underlie this Gene × Environment interaction. One process may involve the conversion of intellectual interest into academic achievement. Analyses of data from 777 pairs of 17-year-old twins indicated that Gene × SES effects on achievement scores can be accounted for by stronger influences of genes for intellectual interest on achievement at higher levels of SES. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that higher SES affords greater opportunity for children to seek out and benefit from learning experiences that are congruent with their genetically influenced intellectual interests.