Capturing teacher priorities: Using real-world eye-tracking to investigate expert teacher priorities across two cultures

Classroom teaching is complex. In the classroom, teachers must readily attend to disruptions and successfully convey new tasks and information. Outside the classroom, teachers must organise their priorities that are important for successful student learning. In fact, differing gaze patterns can reveal the varying priorities that teachers have. Teacher priorities are likely to vary with classroom expertise and can conceivably change with culture too. Therefore, the present study investigated expertise related and cultural teacher priorities by analysing their gaze proportions. To obtain this data, 40 secondary school teachers wore eye-tracking glasses during class time, with 20 teachers (10 expert; 10 novice) from the UK and 20 teachers (10 expert; 10 novice) from Hong Kong. We analysed gaze proportions during teachers' attentional (i.e., information-seeking, e.g., teacher questioning students) and communicative (i.e., information-giving, e.g., teacher lecturing students) gaze. Regardless of culture, expert teachers' gaze proportions revealed prioritisation of students, whereas novice teachers gave priority to non-instructional (i.e., not students, teacher materials, or student materials) classroom regions. Hong Kong teachers prioritised teacher materials (e.g., whiteboard) during communicative gaze whereas UK teachers prioritised non-instructional regions. Regarding culture-specific expertise, with Hong Kong experts prioritised teacher materials more than UK experts who, in turn, did so more than UK novices. We thus demonstrate the role of implicit teacher gaze measures as micro-level indicators of macro-level and explicit aspects of instruction, namely teacher priority.     

First steps into understanding teachers' visual perception of classroom events

Student-teachers struggle to become competent at classroom management. To do so, Berliner (2001) and Feldon (2007) argue for the significance of speedy and accurate recognition of relevant cues for teacher action in the classroom. However, studies investigating how teachers obtain this information from the classroom are scarce. This study employed eye-tracking methodology to investigate teachers' visual perception and detection of classroom events. Results show that experienced teachers process visual information faster, and consistently check up on pupils more regularly. Also they are able to distribute their attention evenly across the classroom. Recommendations for future research and practical implications are discussed.     

Adult dyslexic readers do not demonstrate regularity effects in sentence processing: evidence from eye-movements

We report an eye-movement study that demonstrates differences in regularity effects between adult developmental dyslexic and control non-impaired readers, in contrast to findings from a large number of word recognition studies (see G. Brown, 1997). For low frequency words, controls showed an advantage for Regular items, in which grapheme-to-phoneme strategies could be employed, compared with Irregular Consistent and Inconsistent items, in which rime comparisons or whole word recognition strategies would be advantageous. We propose that in sentential contexts, dyslexic readers do not generate sufficient phonological cues in the parafovea in order to demonstrate the regularity effects typical of unimpaired readers (e.g., S. Sereno & K. Rayner, 2000). These findings suggest that phonological strategies are sensitive to task demands, and underline the impact of methodology on the conclusions that are drawn about dyslexic reading ability.

Identification of effective visual problem solving strategies in a complex visual domain

Students in complex visual domains must acquire visual problem solving strategies that allow them to make fast decisions and come up with good solutions to real-time problems. In this study, 31 air traffic controllers at different levels of expertise (novice, intermediate, expert) were confronted with 9 problem situations depicted on a radar screen. Participants were asked to provide the optimal order of arrival of all depicted aircrafts. Eye-movements, time-on-task, perceived mental effort, and task performance were recorded. Eye-tracking data revealed that novices use inefficient means-end visual problem solving strategies in which they primarily focus on the destination of aircraft. Higher levels of expertise yield visual problem solving strategies characterized by more efficient retrieval of relevant information and more efficient scan paths. Furthermore, experts' solutions were more similar than intermediates' solutions and intermediates' solutions were more similar than novices' solutions. Performance measures showed that experts and intermediates reached better solutions than novices, and that experts were faster and invested less mental effort than intermediates and novices. These findings may help creating eye-movement modeling examples for the teaching of visual problem solving strategies in complex visual domains.     

Intelligent decision-making of online shopping behavior based on internet of things

The development of big data and Internet of things (IoT) have brought big changes to e-commerce. Different kinds of information sources have improved the consumers’ online shopping performance and make it possible to realize the business intelligence. Grip force and eye-tracking sensors are applied to consumers' online reviews search behavior by relating them to the research approaches in IoT. To begin with, public cognition of human contact degrees of recycled water reuses with grip force test was measured. According to the human contact degrees, 9 recycled water reuses presented by the experiment are classified into 4 categories. Based on the conclusion drawn from grip force test, purified recycled water and fresh vegetable irrigated with recycled water are regarded as the drinking for high-level human contact degree and the irrigation of food crops for low-level human contact degree respectively. Several pictures are designed for eye-tracking test by simulating an on-line shopping web page on Taobao (the most popular online shopping platform in China). By comparing the fixation time participants spent on the areas of interest (AOIs), we justify that consumers' online reviews search behavior is substantially affected by human contact degrees of recycled products. It was found that consumers rely on safety perception reviews when buying high contact goods.     

基于眼球追踪的新手教师与专家教师课堂专业视觉差异研究

教师专业视觉是教师在课堂上注意和解释重要现象和关键交互的能力。基于眼动数据的收集与分析,对于教师专业性的研究具有低推断性、高客观性,也可以发现一些习以为常或者不易发现的问题。基于真实教学情境,收集了3位新手和3位专家教师课堂教学的眼动数据。研究发现,专家教师比新手教师对学生的“注意”更具效率。教师对于学生的注视分布都不是太平均,教室桌椅排列的位置影响教师的注意分布,专家教师对于综合成绩较差的学生关注度更高。专家教师对学生的课堂练习状况关注更为普遍。对于新手教师的专业发展提供了一些启示。     

ASL-D6眼动仪刺激呈现与数据收集的功能扩展研究

眼动仪是教育与心理研究中开展眼动实验所常用的一种高端设备。以ASL-D6眼动仪为例,分析了眼动实验在刺激呈现和数据收集中遇到的瓶颈问题,阐述了利用E-Prime实验程序开发软件解决该问题的原理和方法。     

Novice and expert teachers’ noticing of classroom management in whole-group and partner work activities: Evidence from teachers' gaze and identification of events

This eye-tracking study investigates how novice and expert teachers' noticing of classroom management events differs in two formats of instruction. 20 novices and 20 experts participated in the study, watching short video clips of whole-group and partner work teaching situations. Their retrospective verbal reports were analyzed for events identified as note-worthy along with their allocation of visual attention as indicators of their noticing. Experts noticed more classroom management events in the partner work format than novices. Furthermore, their noticing was characterized by a focus on student-related events. Similarly, their gaze prioritized students more than novices', particularly in the partner work format. In contrast, novice teachers' attention was more drawn to the teacher in both formats of instruction. The results show that expertise in teachers’ noticing of classroom management is characterized by a focus on students with the partner work format being more challenging for novice teachers.     

Seller reputation or product presentation? An empirical investigation from cue utilization perspective

This study examines the interaction effects of two types of cues in different scopes (i.e., seller reputation as a high-scope cue and product presentation as a low-scope cue) on consumer product quality evaluation, under different involvement situations. Drawing on the cue utilization theory and involvement-related literature, we propose that cues used in people's decision making processes are contingent on product involvement. Through the conduction of behavioral experiments with eye-tracking technology, the findings show that, under high-involvement situations, both seller reputation and product presentation significantly and independently influence product quality evaluation while their interaction effect does not. While under low-involvement situations, seller reputation significantly influences the product evaluation and moderates the effect of product presentation on consumer product quality evaluation. The effect of product presentation on product evaluation is weakened by seller reputation. The findings, to some extent, are reinforced by the eye-tracking data through the trace and analysis of fixation count and fixation time. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Multiple documents of text and picture: Naming a historical painting’s inaccuracies influences conflict regulation strategies

Referring to theories of multiple documents and narrative processing, two experiments investigated how viewers process pairs of documents about historical events, namely, historical paintings together with audio-texts either naming or not naming historical inaccuracies in the paintings. The results of Experiment 1 revealed that participants encountering discrepancies allocated more attention to the pictorial element, compared to participants without discrepancies, but not to the source label containing information about the artist. Participants in the two conditions reported an equal amount of interest in receiving further information and did not differ with regard to the retention of pictorial elements. In Experiment 2, participants rated the painting’s trustworthiness lower with discrepancies named than without, and this effect was compensated by an explanation for the discrepancy. Retention of the manipulated pictorial elements was not affected by either presenting these elements as discrepant or not, but an explorative analysis indicated that the pictorial elements presented always as consistent were remembered worse with discrepancies named. In Experiment 1, the reported transportation into the historical narrative was lower with compared to without discrepancies named, but we could not replicate this effect in Experiment 2. Our results extend multiple documents literature on multiple documents of text and picture.