从auspicia patrum到auspicia plebeii——罗马共和早期平民与贵族的“天命”之争

公元前5—前4世纪,罗马平民要求获得担任执政官的权利,贵族元老院认为平民缺少担任公职的宗教资格,理由是“平民没有auspicia”(nemo plebeius auspicia haberet)。这是一条古老而重要的观念证据,它揭示出古代罗马国家神权政治的本质:auspicia是关乎国家命运的大事,也是贵族垄断政权的依据,谁掌握了auspicia,谁就能执掌政权。auspicia的本义是“飞鸟占卜”仪式,引申为“举行占卜的权利”(the right of taking auspices),并与统治权紧密结合,从宗教语境过渡到政治语境,其本质含义代表“神的意志”,与中国古代政治传统中的“天命”意思相近。中国殷商时代形成的天命观和君权神授的政治传统与古罗马的神权政治环境十分相似。罗马平民与贵族的占卜仪式纠纷,也可以理解为“天命”之争。李维记载了平民同贵族围绕auspicia的三次争论(公元前445年、公元前367年、公元前300年)。在第一次、第二次争论之后,平民先后取得了与贵族的通婚权和担任最高行政职官的权利。不过,由于“无天命在身”(ne in magistratibus quidem habent),第一批平民职官的职权是有缺陷的,他们只有军事指挥权(potestates),而无命令权(imperium),不能主持换届选举、宣战、召开公民大会、净化等宗教仪式,不能举行凯旋式,不能制定法律,还经常因宗教原因被罢免。导致平民无法获得天命的根本原因是宗教隔离。平民有平民的宗教,也有平民的天命(auspicia plebeii),只是不被贵族承认。“天命”与朱庇特崇拜、占卜和婚礼仪式有关。朱庇特原为贵族的神,平民无权祭祀,但平民很早就模仿贵族祭祀朱庇特;通过与贵族通婚,平民显贵的后代成为朱庇特的子孙,拥有了“神佑”;平民祭司、占卜师、预言师也逐渐进入公共领域,逐渐实现与贵族的宗教认同。天命遂从贵族手中转移到平民手中。

From Auspicia Patrum to Auspicia Plebeii: The dispute on Tian Ming between the plebs and the patrician in the early period of the Roman Repubilc

When the Roman plebs claimed for the consulship for the first time in 445B.C.,the patrician senate rejected the proposal on the ground that“the plebs did not have auspicia”(nemo plebeius auspicia haberet).That was an archaic and important ideological evidence,which revealed the nature of Roman theocracy,that auspicia was crucial to the destiny of the state,and it was also the basis of the aristocracy’s power monopoly.Whoever obtained the auspicia would obtain the right to govern.The connotation of auspicia developed from its original meaning,the“bird divination”,to“the right of taking auspices”,which was closely integrated with the ruling power,and thus transferred from the religious context to the political sphere.As it basically meant“agod’s will”,this reminds us of the“Tian Ming”(天命)in China’s political tradition.The idea of Tian Mingformed in the Yin and Shang Dynasty(1600B.C.to 1100B.C.),and the sacred kingship in China’s political tradition are very similar to that of the theocratic political environment of ancient Rome.Thus the dispute on auspicia between the Roman plebs and the patrician can be translated as that of a“Tian Ming”dispute.According to Livy(Titus Livius),there were three controversies between the plebs and the patrician on auspicia,which took place in 445B.C.,367B.C.,and 300B.C.After the first two controversies,the plebs successively obtained the right to intermarriage with the patrician and access to the consulship;however,the first group of plebeian magistrates were defective in power,because of lacking of auspicia(ne in magistratibus quidem habent).They had only military commanding right(potestates)yet not governing right(imperium),and they could not hold religious rites or ceremonies such as election,declaration of war,convening of citizen assemblies,and purification rite.They were rarely allowed to hold a triumphant ceremony,and were often forced to resign on an excuse of religious defects.The fundamental obstacle to obtain the auspicia was religious isolation.The plebs had their own religion(regliones plebeii)as well as Tian Ming(auspicia plebeii),which were not be recognized by the patrician.Auspicia was actually related the worship for Jupiter,divination and wedding ceremony.Jupiter was originally seen as the god only blessing the patrician and was unavailable to the plebs to worship,but the plebs had long imitated the aristocratic worship for Jupiter.By intermarriage with the nobles,the descendants of the plebs became the descendants of Jupiter and possessed“god’s bless”;above all,the plebeian priests,diviners,and prophets gradually entered the public sphere and gradually gained religious identification from the patrician.Thus the Tian Mingor auspicia was transferred from the hands of the patrician to the plebs.