Degree and gender distinctions among Indonesian graduate officials

A study of Indonesian graduate officials shows pervasive differences between the holders of the Sarjana Muda, or Bachelor, degree, and those with the Sarjana, or Master's and other higher degrees (in what follows referred to as Bachelors and Highers), also between men and women holders of either level of degree.The Bachelors were younger than the Highers, and the women younger than the men, the youngest group therefore being the women Bachelors. Most Bachelors had graduated from academies and institutes; most Highers from the universities. The five leading state universities were responsible for a smaller proportion of women than of men Highers. Few of these institutions at either Bachelor of Higher level were in the private sector; these were favoured more by men than by women, and by Highers rather than Bachelors.Most graduates had been trained in secular, not religious, institutions (these were mostly Islamic). There were unimportant differences between the genders in this regard at Bachelor level; at Higher, a larger proportion of men had graduated from religious colleges.Relatively more women than men were graduates of the I.K.I.P., or teacher training colleges, while the reverse applied in the case of the academies and institutes, often offering other vocational qualifications. Bachelor graduates from the IKIP had lower salaries than those from the universities and academies; higher graduates from the universities were better paid than those from the other institutions.The most popular degree subjects, at Bachelor level, were those useful for teaching and administration; and also economics (which includes accountancy). There were slight differences between the genders, the women tending to favour teaching subjects, the men those useful for other occupations. At Higher level, while the Social Sciences and Economics remained popular, Medicine and Law assumed greater importance. There were more pronounced differences between the genders in certain subjects. The Behavioural and Social Sciences, Economics, Agriculture, and Engineering were relatively more popular with the men; the reverse applied for Education and Medicine; choices perhaps in part reflecting traditional conceptions of professions open to men and to women.Among Bachelors, vocational subjects were associated with better chances of promotion to the upper salary grades. Higher degree subjects which performed a similar function were those more closely connected with government administration and tertiary teaching. In either case these subjects had been studied by only a minority of the sample.Over half the sample of Bachelors was engaged in either teaching or educational administration, with a further three in ten occupied with government. Nearly seven out of 10 women were employed in the former occupations; their other preference was for Medicine. At higher degree level there were relatively more men than women in general administration. While there was a higher proportion of women in education as a whole, this was not true for the tertiary level, where the proportions of the genders was very similar. Also, in contrast with the situation among Bachelors, there was a much higher proportion of men in Medicine and in the Judiciary. In passing, we note that the distribution of jobs held by graduates from Islamic institutions does not differ significantly from that of the general body of graduate officials.More than 50% of the Bachelors were employed by the Departments of Education and of Religion, with over a fifth in the major administrative departments of government. However, the differences between the genders were important. Three fifths of the women were employed by Education, as against two fifths of the men, and only one tenth of the women were to be found in government administration, against a quarter of the men.At Higher level, two fifths of the graduates were in either Education or Religion, but otherwise much more evenly distributed across departments. If anything, there was a higher proportion of women than of men to be found in all departments with the major exception of Health, and the minor one of Education, where the reverse applied.