Second language learning and reading with the additional load of dyslexia

Students speaking a language at home, which is different from the instructional at home, often face serious literacy problems in their additional language. This article examines the various factors involved in these difficulties and proposes some procedures for determining whether the reading problems are primarily due to linguistic factors, sociocultural factors, or specific learning problems such as dyslexia. The discussion of linguistic factors includes a closer examination of the concept of language proficiency. Dimensions of individual differences in the ability of second language (L2) acquisition are specified. Particular emphasis is given to the role of verbal working memory in L2 acquisition and to neuropsychological aspects. A popular target for recent research has been the orthographic structure of the language, and a general assumption has been that transparent orthographies, such as Italian or Finnish, are easier for a learner to deal with than deep orthographies. The methodological problems involved in the study of this issue are discussed. Some recent large-scale comparative surveys of reading literacy have not been able to demonstrate the impact of orthographic structures, as other, more powerful explanations of achievement variations have masked the possibly small orthographic effects. These explanatory factors are to a large extent related to social and cultural conditions in homes, communities, and schools. A tentative model is proposed where the various factors involved in L2 reading are specified, providing guidelines for assessment strategies.