On the Swing Mechanics of a Matched Set of Golf Clubs

Abstract

Some golf equipment manufacturers produce matched sets of golf clubs using an empirical method based on first moments of mass as well as shaft stiffness, whereas others claim to match sets on the basis of moment of inertia and dynamic considerations of shaft stiffness. This paper considers the significance of the mass distribution feature of club matching with regard to the parameters relating to physical exertion by the golfer. It is shown that dynamic considerations require a mass variation through the set almost identical to the variation prescribed by static swing weighting, and that conventionally static balanced golf clubs differ in mass by less than five percent from that suggested using a dynamic balance. It is also shown that the maximum driving force is relatively the same for a specific golfer using a variety of golf clubs but that the driving forces of the professionals were higher than those recorded for the amateurs.     

The static and dynamic stiffness behaviour of composite golf shafts and their constituent materials

Golf shafts are normally characterised using static or quasi-static tests, yet the golf swing itself is dynamic. The purpose of this research was to determine whether stiffness properties obtained from these tests can be used when modelling the dynamic behaviour of golf shafts made from carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP). Three shafts, matched for all properties except shaft flex, were subjected to human swing testing by 12 skillful players whilst strains were recorded. Peak principal strains as well as strain rates increased as shaft flex decreased (p < 0.001). CFRP flat panels with lay-ups similar to those contained in the shafts were constructed and tested statically and at strain rates between 10⁻⁴ and 4 s⁻¹. Some level of strain-rate dependency was found for these panels, but only for strain rates exceeding those seen during a swing, which suggests that static material tests are appropriate for measuring the dynamic stiffness of golf shafts.     

Bone mineral density and body composition in elite female golf and netball players

Abstract

The aim of this study was to compare bone density and body composition measurements in women participating in elite-level netball and golf, two sports with contrasting loading characteristics. Bone mineral density (BMD) and body composition were measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in 14 state-level netball players (20.8±3.4 years), 11 single-digit handicap golf players (22.4±2.1 years) and a control group (n=18) not training for sport (22.6±3.6 years). Trunk extensor endurance and grip strength were also measured using the Sorensen test and hand-grip dynamometry respectively. Netball players had significantly higher total body, lumbar spine and hip BMD than the golf players (P<0.001) and control subjects (P<0.001). The golf players had higher BMD than the control subjects only in the lumbar spine (P<0.05). The netball players were significantly taller than the golf players and control group (P<0.01) and had a higher body mass than the control group (P<0.001). After adjustment for body height and mass, the BMD values in the netball players remained significantly higher than the control subjects at all sites (P<0.01), while the golf players had significantly higher lumbar spine BMD than the controls (P<0.05). Elite-level netball participation is associated with increased total body, hip and lumbar spine BMD, while this response was only evident in the lumbar spine in elite golf players. The contrasting loading characteristics of these sports may be reflected in the site-specific differences in BMD when compared to non-athletic control subjects.     

Material and surface effects on the spin and launch angle generated from a wedge/ball interaction in golf

Backspin rate and friction coefficients have been studied for a range of commercially available wedges and multi-piece golf balls using a mechanical golfer and a modified pin-on-disc tester. Analysis of shot characteristics for wedges with three different surface roughness values and two golf ball types (two-piece ionomer covered and three-piece polyurethane covered) was carried out using the mechanical golfer, whilst pin-on-disc testing was performed to determine the friction coefficient between the different golf ball covers (with a range of hardness values) and steel discs with a range of surface roughness values seen for different wedges. It was found that the polyurethane covered balls (lower hardness) showed greater backspin than the ionomer covered balls (higher hardness), and showed higher friction values during the pin-ondisc testing. During the mechanical golfer tests, however, it was observed that the ionomer covered balls showed an increase in friction coefficient for increasing surface roughness, although the effect of differences in cover material types was greater than that of surface roughness variation for the same cover material within the range of commercially available wedge face surface roughnesses.     

声音反馈对高尔夫挥杆训练效果的生物力学影响

目的:从生物力学角度探究声音反馈训练(teaching with acoustical guidance,TAGteachTM)和传统训练方法对高尔夫初学者击球效果和挥杆动作的影响。方法:21名无高尔夫训练基础的大学生受试者随机分为声音反馈训练组(clicker training group,CG,n=11)和传统训练组(traditional training group,TG,n=10),由一名韩国职业高尔夫教练员进行5周的高尔夫挥杆动作教学训练,使用7号铁杆。训练后,对受试进行挥杆动作生物力学测试,对比两组受试者的击球效果和挥杆动作。结果:5周声音反馈训练后,CG杆速、球速、杆面角度、击球距离等击球表现指标显著优于TG(P<0.01)。挥杆动作方面,CG从上杆阶段到随挥初期挥杆时间显著小于TG(P<0.05),骨盆转动速度显著大于TG(P<0.05);CG骨盆转动角度和COM-COP倾角的标准化角加速度变化率显著小于TG(P<0.05)。结论:声音反馈是一种有效的训练辅助手段,可提升高尔夫初学者的挥杆练习效果。     

Understanding the role of shaft stiffness in the golf swing

Theoretically, shaft stiffness can alter shot distance by increasing clubhead speed or altering clubhead orientation at impact. A 3D forward dynamics model of a golfer and flexible club simulated the downswing. A genetic algorithm optimized the coordination of the model’s muscles (four torque generators) to maximize clubhead speed. The maximum torque output and maximum rate of torque development from the torque generators were varied to simulate the swing of golfers that generate different clubhead speeds. Four shafts of varying stiffness (flexible, regular, stiff, and completely rigid) were entered into these simulations to examine the role that shaft flexibility had on clubhead speed and orientation at impact. Shaft stiffness was found to have a meaningful effect only on clubhead orientation (dynamic loft and dynamic close) at impact. There was no evidence to support the premise that matching the stiffness properties of the shaft with the golfer would improve clubhead speed.     

高尔夫休闲需求模型研究

针对目前高尔夫休闲供需结构性失衡的现象,选取球龄与休闲成本两因素建立高尔夫休闲需求模型,以典型高尔夫休闲地——桂林作为研究对象,在通过问卷调查获得数据的基础上,采用SPSS统计学工具和灰色关联度排序证明进行分析,结果显示在一定条件下高尔夫休闲需求模型具有合理性。进一步研究发现桂林高尔夫休闲三层次对应的球龄与成本的主要范围以及收入等因素与高尔夫休闲需求的关系,最后对高尔夫休闲需求模型进行展望。     

我国高尔夫赛事开发的制约因素与策略

运用文献资料法和访谈法回顾我国(大陆地区,下同)高尔夫赛事发展的历程,分析高尔夫赛事开发的意义,以及制约我国高尔夫赛事发展的因素,主要有政策限制、经济落后等宏观因素,也有球会规模小和分布不均、行业协会职能局限、高尔夫人才匮乏等微观因素。在此基础上,对我国高尔夫球赛事的开发提出相应的对策。     

Golf science research at the beginning of the twenty-first century

Abstract

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, there are 30,000 golf courses and 55 million people who play golf worldwide. In the USA alone, the value of golf club memberships sold in the 1990s was US$3.2 billion. Underpinning this significant human activity is a wide variety of people researching and applying science to sustain and develop the game. The 11 golf science disciplines recognized by the World Scientific Congress of Golf have reported 311 papers at four world congresses since 1990. Additionally, scientific papers have been published in discipline-specific peer-reviewed journals, research has been sponsored by the two governing bodies of golf, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews and the United States Golf Association, and confidential research is undertaken by commercial companies, especially equipment manufacturers. This paper reviews much of this human endeavour and points the way forward for future research into golf.     

高尔夫球起源考辨

在介绍几种流行说法的基础上,对高尔夫球起源问题进行探究.认为,苏格兰起源说和荷兰起源说均缺乏有力的资料证据,中国的捶丸文献丰富、记载明确,规则也与高尔夫球十分类似,可以认为与高尔夫球运动有着密切的血缘关系.同时认为,高尔夫球起源与现代高尔夫球运动的产生需要区别对待,必须尊重现代高尔夫球运动产生于苏格兰这一事实;捶丸西传资料和研究的欠缺是其成为高尔夫球统一起源的最大障碍,也是今后此研究的重点领域;各种与高尔夫球类似的游戏都脱胎于生产劳动.     

高尔夫运动产品发展演变

被西方称为"贵族运动"的高尔夫在中国日益盛行,在高尔夫球运动发展过程中,探讨高尔夫运动产品的历史发展演变,挖掘其发展演变的历史渊源,对普及高尔夫运动文化起到一定的推动作用。本文通过文献资料法对高尔夫具有代表性的运动服装、高尔夫球杆、高尔夫用球进行梳理,深化人们对高尔夫的认识,以期开发国内高尔夫运动产品市场。     

捶丸及高尔夫演变发展轨迹原因之分析

运用文献资料法和逻辑分析法,对捶丸和高尔夫演变发展轨迹原因进行研究。捶丸和高尔夫运动极为相似,捶丸在宋元明曾出现全盛时期,却没有发展到现在,这与中国清朝统治者在治国策略上奉行中国传统文化的理性主义有直接的关系。然而捶丸却没有像高尔夫发展成为贵族运动,主要是高尔夫以西方文化为底蕴和统治者的支持。本文将依据相关资料进行探讨,为我们了解高尔夫和捶丸的演变发展轨迹提供理论基础。     

长沙市高尔夫俱乐部教练员现状调查与分析

运用文献资料法、访谈法、问卷调查法、数理统计法对长沙市高尔夫俱乐部教练员进行了现状调查与分析,研究结果表明:(1)在年龄结构上,长沙市高尔夫俱乐部教练员呈现年轻化趋势。年轻教练占较大比例。(2)在性别结构上,长沙市高尔夫俱乐部教练员中呈现男多女少的现象。这与全国其他地方的高尔夫教练员的情况类似。(3)长沙市高尔夫俱乐部教练员中教龄较长的教练员学历水平普遍不高,而教龄较短的教练员学历集中在本科阶段。(4)与其他城市相比,长沙高尔夫俱乐部的教练平均月薪处于中等水平,与长沙在全国的城市排名来看是较为相符的,与其他体育项目的教练员薪资水平相比相对较高。(5)长沙市高尔夫俱乐部教练员资格认证情况不够乐观。(6)长沙市高尔夫俱乐部教练员中的外籍教练年龄都在40岁以上,平均教龄为20年左右,平均月薪为10000元左右,学历方面,外籍教练员均是本科,资格认证方面,外籍教练员有显著优势。     

我国标准高尔夫运动场地现状及发展规模研究

通过运用第5次全国体育场地普查的相关数据，对我国境内标准高尔夫运动场地的分布情况、资金来源、隶属关系、系统分类、经济成分、增长状况等指标全面分析，了解标准高尔夫运动场地在我国的现状。通过现状分析得出在我国各地区发展与经济相和谐的标准高尔夫运动场地符合我国的国情，同时对未来各地区的标准高尔夫运动场地的发展规模进行了预测。     

Examination of the neuromechanical factors contributing to golf swing performance

This study investigated the relationship between a range of neuromechanical variables in the lower- and upper-body, and golf performance. Participants were assessed for individual muscle stiffness, vertical stiffness (Kvert), flexibility, power and maximal isometric strength. Furthermore, golf performance was determined by handicap and club head speed. Pearson’s correlations quantified the relationships between neuromechanical variables and performance measures. Participants were also separated into relatively high club head speed (HC) and low club head speed (LC) groups and compared for physical characteristics. Club head speed showed positive relationships with Kvert and power and a negative relationship with hip mobility. The HC group exhibited superior Kvert and power, while strength and flexibility measures were not related to performance. Higher levels of lower-body stiffness, rate of force development and power output appear to be beneficial for generating superior club head speed. A stiffer system may reduce the time needed to remove the “slack” from the series elastic component therefore, reducing electromechanical delay and enhancing rate of force development. The large positive association with rate of force development suggests that increasing this component, along with power production may be superior focal components for training in golfers due to the short duration of the downswing.     

The X-Factor: An evaluation of common methods used to analyse major inter-segment kinematics during the golf swing

Abstract

A common biomechanical feature of a golf swing, described in various ways in the literature, is the interaction between the thorax and pelvis, often termed the X-Factor. There is no consistent method used within golf biomechanics literature however to calculate these segment interactions. The purpose of this study was to examine X-factor data calculated using three reported methods in order to determine the similarity or otherwise of the data calculated using each method. A twelve-camera three-dimensional motion capture system was used to capture the driver swings of 19 participants and a subject specific three-dimensional biomechanical model was created with the position and orientation of each model estimated using a global optimisation algorithm. Comparison of the X-Factor methods showed significant differences for events during the swing (P < 0.05). Data for each kinematic measure were derived as a times series for all three methods and regression analysis of these data showed that whilst one method could be successfully mapped to another, the mappings between methods are subject dependent (P <0.05). Findings suggest that a consistent methodology considering the X-Factor from a joint angle approach is most insightful in describing a golf swing.     

河南省高校校园高尔夫的发展现状与对策研究

高尔夫运动起源于十五世纪的苏格兰,十九世纪传入中国。同西方国家相比,我国的高尔夫运动起步相对较晚,高校作为高学历、高素质的聚集地,未来社会发展的中坚力量,把高尔夫运动引进高校校园不仅丰富了体育课程的建设,也是高尔夫运动发展的重要举措。本文在对河南省高校校园高尔夫调查研究基础上,深入分析高校校园高尔夫的发展现状及问题,为高尔夫运动在河南乃至全国的高校校园的发展和普及提供参考意见。     

试析高尔夫文化的历史演变与社会发展特征

高尔夫化是现代社会发展进程中一种特殊的化现象。通过对高尔夫化的历史演变和社会发展特征的分析，为进一步发展和完善我国高尔夫运动的理论研究，探讨高尔夫产业市场发展的基本规律，奠定理论研究基础。     

A three-dimensional forward dynamic model of the golf swing optimized for ball carry distance

A 3D predictive golfer model can be a valuable tool for investigating the golf swing and designing new clubs. A forward dynamic model, which includes a four degree of freedom golfer model, a flexible shaft based on Rayleigh beam theory, an impulse-momentum impact model and a spin rate dependent aerodynamic ball model, is presented. The input torques for the golfer model are provided by parameterized joint torque generators that have been designed to mimic muscle torque production. These joint torques are optimized to create swings and launch conditions that maximize carry distance. The flexible shaft model allows for continuous bending in the transverse directions, axial twisting of the club and variable shaft stiffness as a function of the length. The completed four-part model with the default parameters is used to estimate the ball carry of a golf swing using a particular club. This model will be useful for experimenting with club design parameters to predict their effect on the ball trajectory and carry distance.     

中国高尔夫产业结构、行为、绩效的相互关系研究

该文采用数理统计法、文献资料法、逻辑分析法等研究方法，对中国高尔夫产业的市场结构、企业行为、市场绩效及三者之间相互关系的理论与实证分析发现：中国高尔夫产业的市场绩效与市场集中度呈反向变化；中国高尔夫产业的中低度差异化制约了市场绩效的提高；高尔夫球场实施价格歧视策略有利于高尔夫球场获取垄断利润，但对高尔夫会籍实施跨时价格歧视将会使得长期利润减少。最后，根据研究结果，针对进一步提高我国高尔夫产业的绩效水平，提出了相应的对策建议。