艺术体操运动员脊柱曲度异常与躯干两侧活动度和力量对称性的关系

目的:描述艺术体操运动员在日常状况下和完成专项动作时脊柱异常的表现及左右对称性,探讨与之相关的因素。方法:以9名艺术体操运动员为研究对象,进行站立位脊柱X光片拍摄,获得脊柱额状面和矢状面的弯曲方向和角度;使用三维摄像方法定量评价运动员完成后搬腿动作和侧搬腿动作时的脊柱活动幅度;运用后伸肌群和双侧屈肌群测试系统对运动员的坐姿躯干后伸和双侧侧屈等长收缩力量进行测试。比较躯干活动幅度和躯干肌肉力量的左右对称性,比较不同脊柱侧凸方向间躯干活动差异。检验脊柱弯曲角度与躯干活动特征的相关性。结果:后搬左侧腿时的活动幅度显著小于后搬右侧腿(P<0.01),对应躯干向左扭转的幅度显著大于向右扭转幅度(P<0.05)。侧搬腿时躯干活动幅度越大对应的躯干扭转角度越大。胸曲角度与右侧搬腿活动幅度角存在正相关(P<0.05),与右侧搬腿躯干扭转角之间为显著负相关(P<0.05),腰曲角度与左侧搬腿活动幅度角之间存在显著正相关(P<0.05),与右侧搬腿躯干扭转角之间存在显著负相关(P<0.05)。肌肉力量方面,胸曲角度越大,3个位置躯干后伸力矩峰值越小。侧屈力量上,运动员绝大多数角度下的右屈力量显著大于左屈力量。胸曲角度、腰°曲角度分°别与不同躯干侧屈角度下右屈力矩峰值存在显著负相关。腰曲角度与左屈0、15°、30和右屈15°位置的躯干左屈力矩峰值存在显著负相关。结论:艺术体操运动员躯干两侧活动度和肌肉力量存在不对称,后伸幅度左侧大于右侧,侧屈肌力右侧大于左侧;但这种不对称与脊柱额状面上异常弯曲无明显关系;集中于躯干右侧和躯干后伸动作的训练,可能是导致胸曲变直的原因。     

悬吊运动疗法对慢性腰痛患者疼痛及核心区力量的影响

通过悬吊运动治疗对比受试者治疗前后疼痛及肌力测试结果,探讨对慢性腰痛患者主观疼痛程度及核心区力量的影响,结果发现:受试者治疗后躯干屈伸及左右旋转肌群工作能力显著增强,最大肌力增加不显著;屈伸肌力比更协调,屈肌力量增加较伸肌更明显;左右侧肌力更平均,弱侧肌力增加较强侧更明显;患者疼痛明显减轻.结论:四周8次的悬吊运动治疗能显著减轻慢性腰痛患者的疼痛;增强躯干核心区肌肉工作能力,改善屈伸、左右旋转肌力比,从而改善腰部功能.     

下肢功能测试在评估前十字韧带重建术后安全返回赛场中的应用

下肢功能测试（单脚跳远、单脚侧向跳、单脚箱跳和单脚8字跳）可较好评估前十字韧带功能不良,但目前相关应用研究较少。本研究对15名接受前十字韧带重建术重返赛场的女子运动员,平均年龄（22.3±3.5） 岁,重返时间为术后9~12个月依次完成KOOS量表、等速肌力测试和下肢功能测试,采用配对T检验比较手术腿与健侧腿的下肢功能测试和等速肌力成绩的差异。采用皮尔逊积差相关系数检验全部测试结果的相关性。结果发现,单脚跳远成绩患侧腿明显低于健侧腿,箱跳成绩患侧腿低于健侧腿,8字跳和侧向跳成绩两侧无差异; 60°/s伸展、180°/s屈曲峰力矩患侧腿与健侧腿存在差异;单腿跳远成绩与60°/s伸展峰力矩具有相关性（r=0.605）,箱跳成绩与180°/s屈曲峰力矩具有相关性（r=0.560）。表明ACLR术后9~12个月重返赛场的女子运动员仍普遍存在股四头肌力量和腘绳肌力量耐力对称性不良,应避免全力的制动和起跳落地动作;运动员重返赛前应该通过膝关节等速肌力和下肢功能测试完整了解膝关节功能的恢复情况;而KOOS评分量表用于运动员ACLR术后重返赛场决策敏感度不佳。     

不同角速度下自行车运动员膝关节肌力特征的研究

方法：利用CONTREX等速肌力测试与训练系统,以180°／s、120°／s、60°／s3种角速度对苏州市自行车训练队26名运动员右腿膝关节进行等速向心屈伸测试。目的：分析自行车运动员不同角速度下等速向心收缩与膝关节肌肌力的关系及肌力特征。结果：1、屈伸肌峰力矩随速度的增加呈减小趋势。2、到达峰力矩的时间随测试速度的增加而缩短。且男女运动员在180°／s与120°／s组间均无显著差异。3、膝关节相对平均功率伸肌均大于屈肌,120°／ts时,屈伸肌的相对平均功率最大。4、屈伸肌比在64．8％～70．6％内,有随速度增加而增加的趋势。结论：以60°／s的角速度训练肌肉最大力量效果更明显;爆发力在120°／s时训练效果最佳;屈／伸肌比值（H／Q）在正常范围内,但低于优秀运动员（优秀运动员可达80％以上）。     

肌肉电刺激结合肌力训练对髌股疼痛综合征人群单腿下蹲动作生物力学特征的影响

目的：髌股疼痛综合征（patellofemoral pain syndrome, PFPS）是一种常见的膝关节疼痛，运动疗法以及肌肉电刺激已被证明可以改善PFPS人群的疼痛及功能，但关于其是否能够改善下肢异常的生物力学特征仍存在争议。因此，研究旨在探讨6周的肌肉电刺激结合肌力训练以及单纯肌力训练对PFPS人群单腿下蹲动作生物力学和肌肉激活特征的影响。方法：招募46名PFPS受试者，随机分为肌肉电刺激训练（electric muscle stimulation,EMS）组和单纯肌力训练（muscle strength training,MST）组。通过疼痛视觉模拟评分表（visual analog scale, VAS）、膝前痛量表（anterior knee pain scale, AKPS）、红外动作捕捉系统、测力台以及表面肌电测试仪采集受试者干预前后单腿下蹲时的运动学、动力学以及表面肌电数据。采用双因素重复测量方差分析确定组别与时间对单腿下蹲时下肢生物力学特征的影响。结果：6周干预训练后，两组单腿下蹲时的VAS评分、髋关节最大内旋角、髋关节最大外展力矩、膝关节最大外展角、膝关节三维...     

国家艺术体操队运动员功能动作筛查结果分析与纠正性训练

目的：对国家艺术体操队22名运动员进行功能动作筛查并分析,了解该项目运动员的功能动作特征,并针对存在问题的功能动作提出纠正性训练方法,以期达到改善功能动作质量、减少损伤发生、提高专项训练水平的目的。方法：文献资料法、实验法、数理统计法、逻辑分析法。结果：（1）队员的FMS得分为13.0±2.5分,存在较大的损伤风险;（2）主动直膝抬腿、肩部灵活性、躯干稳定俯卧撑得分与其他动作相比具有显著性差异;（3）共有23人次在测试中存在疼痛,7人次存在不对称现象。结论：国家艺术体操运动员：（1）髋、肩关节灵活性较好而踝关节则较差,部分运动员腰椎灵活性过度而胸椎灵活性受限;（2）髋关节、肩胛区及核心区稳定性较差;（3）小腿三头肌柔韧性差,踝关节和髋关节外展、内收肌力失衡,部分运动员下肢不对称。纠正性训练应首先根据排序原则进行排序,其次从灵活性、稳定性、功能性力量、动作模式重建这4个方面开展针对性的训练。最后,8周的纠正性训练显著地提高了FMS得分,功能动作质量得到改善。     

下腰痛患者肌肉力量和神经—肌肉活动研究现状

下腰痛（Low Back Pain,LBP）是一种常见的临床症状,有60％-80％的成年人生活中有LBP发作的经历,严重地影响了患者的生活质量.肌肉力量和神经肌肉活动不平衡现象常常存在于LBP患者中,被认为同LBP的产生以及LBP的反复发作相关.研究目的：探讨LBP患者中出现的肌肉力量和神经肌肉活动的异常改变,并初步探讨其同LBP发作之间的关系.研究方法：通过文献资料法,对近年来国内外对LBP患者中肌肉力量、神经肌肉控制和与其它运动环节之间关系的研究进行分析.研究结果：（1）多数研究表明慢性LBP患者存在背伸肌力的下降、屈伸峰力矩（F/E）比值的上升、背伸肌耐力下降等现象.结果反应了LBP患者肌力平衡受到了破坏,可能是引起LBP反复发作的原因.而躯干旋转力量不平衡同LBP发作的关联则尚无定论. （2）通过表面肌电图技术观察LBP患者腰背神经肌肉活动的异常.研究发现,LBP患者存在腰背肌静止状态下激活增强、椎旁肌活动不对称、屈曲放松反应（Flexion-Relaxtion ratio,FRR）缺失、腰背肌肉耐力下降等肌电的异常现象.（3） LBP不仅仅会引起腰背肌力和神经肌肉活动的改变,也会引起相关运动环节的异常. 已有研究证实臀肌肌电活动异常、腹肌激活模式改变、下肢肌肉活动异常同LBP发作相关联.结论：肌肉力量及激活的异常,躯干屈/伸比值的改变,背伸肌肌肉耐力下降,椎旁肌激活不对称性,伸肌容易疲劳以及屈曲松弛,臀肌、腹肌、下肢肌肉激活的异常等都同LBP存在一定的关联.这些因素,在康复训练过程中应引起足够的重视.     

局部肌肉疲劳对踝关节本体感觉的影响

目的:通过分析局部肌肉疲劳前、后踝关节在矢状面内运动的位置觉、肌肉力觉的变化,探讨局部肌肉疲劳对踝关节本体感觉的影响,为踝关节损伤防治和康复训练提供基础理论和实验依据。方法:选取14名无踝关节疾患的受试者为实验对象,踝关节位置觉采用对踝关节跖屈5°的被动定位、被动复位能力进行测试,肌肉力觉采用受试者踝关节对跖屈肌群25%最大等长峰值力矩值的复制能力进行测试;疲劳测试采用60最大等速向心运动模式;对于局部肌肉疲劳前、后踝关节本体感觉的对比,采用重复测量方差分析进行。结果:踝关节的位置觉(VEJPS和AEJPS)和肌肉力觉(RVEFS和RAEFS)在局部肌肉疲劳前、后的差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:1)最大等速向心运动至局部肌肉疲劳后,踝关节的位置觉均较疲劳前下降;2)最大等速向心运动至局部肌肉疲劳后,踝关节的肌肉力觉均较疲劳前下降;3)踝关节最大等速向心运动至局部肌肉疲劳后,受试者的中枢控制策略发生改变。     

功能动作测试在中学生基本运动能力评价中的应用

目的：采用功能性动作测试系统（Functional Movement Screen,FMS）评价青少年在完成不同功能动作模式时身体各部分的稳定性、对称性和灵活性,研究其基本运动能力及影响因素。方法：以上海市某中学中随机挑选的100名初中生为研究对象,对他们进行7个特定动作的测试并评分,并对测试结果进行统计分析。结果：FMS测试总分满分为21,受试对象FMS总分均分为14.89,总体水平偏低;女生肩关节灵活性和直腿抬高测试得分显著高于男生,但总分上男女生无显著差异;青少年在完成动作时普遍存在身体晃动、力量不足和两侧肌力不对称现象,髋、膝、踝关节灵活性受限且稳定性较差,脊柱的屈伸能力不足,两侧盂肱关节和髋关节的活动能力不对称。在旋转稳定性、跨栏架和直线弓箭步３个测试中这些不足尤为明显。结论：青少年基本运动能力水平较低,大多数人需要进行矫正训练;男女生总体上的表现差异不显著,但女生在肩部灵活性和直腿抬高测试的表现要优于男生,故男生需加强肩部和髋部关节的灵活性锻炼。     

功能动作测试在中学生基本运动能力评价中的应用

目的:采用功能性动作测试系统(Functional Movement Screen,FMS)评价青少年在完成不同功能动作模式时身体各部分的稳定性、对称性和灵活性,研究其基本运动能力及影响因素。方法:以上海市某中学中随机挑选的100名初中生为研究对象,对他们进行7个特定动作的测试并评分,并对测试结果进行统计分析。结果:FMS测试总分满分为21,受试对象FMS总分均分为14.89,总体水平偏低;女生肩关节灵活性和直腿抬高测试得分显著高于男生,但总分上男女生无显著差异;青少年在完成动作时普遍存在身体晃动、力量不足和两侧肌力不对称现象,髋、膝、踝关节灵活性受限且稳定性较差,脊柱的屈伸能力不足,两侧盂肱关节和髋关节的活动能力不对称。在旋转稳定性、跨栏架和直线弓箭步3个测试中这些不足尤为明显。结论:青少年基本运动能力水平较低,大多数人需要进行矫正训练;男女生总体上的表现差异不显著,但女生在肩部灵活性和直腿抬高测试的表现要优于男生,故男生需加强肩部和髋部关节的灵活性锻炼。     

Differences in trunk and thigh muscle strength,endurance and thickness between elite sailors and non-sailors

Dinghy sailors lean their upper body over the windward side of the boat (‘hiking’) to keep the boat’s balance and maximise its speed. Sustaining the hiking position is essential for competitive performance and this study examined sport-specific differences of muscles relevant for hiking in elite sailors. Knee extensor muscle strength as well as trunk muscle strength, muscle endurance and muscle thickness were assessed in elite dinghy sailors (n = 15) and compared to matched, non-sailing controls (n = 15). Isometric extensor strength was significantly higher in sailors at 60° (+14%) but not at 20° knee flexion. Sailors showed significantly higher trunk flexor (but not extensor) strength under isometric (+18%) and eccentric (+11%) conditions, which was associated to greater muscle thickness (rectus abdominis +40%; external oblique +26%) and higher endurance for ventral (+66%) and lateral (+61%) muscle chains compared to non-sailors. Greater muscles thickness and the particular biomechanical requirements to maintain the hiking position may drive the increases in isometric and eccentric muscle strength as well as ventral and lateral trunk endurance. The current findings identified sport-specific muscle function differences and provide performance benchmarks for muscle strength and endurance in elite sailors.     

Back injuries and the fast bowler in cricket

Here, I review research that has investigated the aetiology of injuries experienced by adolescent and adult fast bowlers. Mechanical factors play an important role in the aetiology of degenerative processes and injuries to the lumbar spine. This is particularly so in fast bowling, where a player must absorb vertical and horizontal components of the ground reaction force that are approximately five and two times body weight at front-foot and rear-foot impact, respectively. Attenuated forces are transmitted to the spine through the lower limb, while additional forces at the lumbo-sacral junction are caused by trunk hyperextension, lateral flexion and twisting during the delivery stride. Fast bowlers are classified as side-on, front-on or mixed. The mixed action is categorized by the lower body configuration of the front-on action and the upper body configuration of the side-on technique. This upper body configuration is produced by counter-rotation away from the batsman in the transverse plane about the longitudinal axis of the body of a line through the two shoulders. Counter-rotations of 12-40 degrees during a delivery stride have predicted an increased incidence of lumbar spondylolysis, disc abnormality and muscle injury in fast bowlers. During the delivery stride, the mixed bowling action also shows: more lateral flexion and hyperextension of the lumbar spine at front-foot impact, and a greater range of motion of the trunk over the delivery stride when compared with the side-on and front-on techniques. The pars interarticularis of each vertebra is vulnerable to injury if repetitive flexion, rotation and hyperextension are present in the activity. Fast bowlers should reduce shoulder counter-rotation during the delivery stride to reduce the incidence of back injuries. When a player is required to bowl for extended periods irrespective of technique, overuse is also related to an increased incidence of back injuries and must be avoided.     

Back injuries and the fast bowler in cricket

Here, I review research that has investigated the aetiology of injuries experienced by adolescent and adult fast bowlers. Mechanical factors play an important role in the aetiology of degenerative processes and injuries to the lumbar spine. This is particularly so in fast bowling, where a player must absorb vertical and horizontal components of the ground reaction force that are approximately five and two times body weight at front-foot and rear-foot impact, respectively. Attenuated forces are transmitted to the spine through the lower limb, while additional foces at the lumbo-sacral junction are caused by trunk hyperextension, lateral flexion and twisting during the delivery stride. Fast bowlers are classified as side-on, front-on or mixed. The mixed action is categorized by the lower body configuration of the front-on action and the upper body configuration of the side-on technique. This upper body configuration is produced by counter-rotation away from the batsman in the transverse plane about the longitudinal axis of the body of a line through the two shoulders. Counter-rotations of 12–40° during a delivery stride have predicted an increased incidence of lumbar spondylolysis, disc abnormality and muscle injury in fast bowlers. During the delivery stride, the mixed bowling action also shows: more lateral flexion and hyperextension of the lumbar spine at front-foot impact, and a greater range of motion of the trunk over the delivery stride when compared with the side-on and front-on techniques. The pars interarticularis of each vertebra is vulnerable to injury if repetitive flexion, rotation and hyperextension are present in the activity. Fast bowlers should reduce shoulder counter-rotation during the delivery stride to reduce the incidence of back injuries. When a player is required to bowl for extended periods irrespective of technique, overuse is also related to an increased incidence of back injuries and must be avoided.     

我国9~10岁优秀男子体操运动员力量素质的评价与诊断研究

采用特尔菲法构建评价指标体系及标准,运用帕累托分析、目标挑战模型等对我国9~10岁优秀少年男子体操运动力量素质的训练水平进行评价与诊断。结果表明：（1）9岁组上肢力量、躯干力量与下肢专项爆发力发展参差不齐,上肢慢用性拉引力量与腰腹快速屈伸力量整体水平有待提高;10岁组上肢与躯干综合力量素质得到全面协调训练,但下肢爆发力良莠不齐,整体水平欠佳。（2）训练周期内容安排上,两个年龄组均应重点发展上肢支撑与拉引力量素质,且9岁组还应突出发展上肢快速推撑与屈伸力量素质;（3）发展目标上,下一阶段两个年龄组都应加强下肢爆发力和躯干专项力量的科学训练,且10岁组还应重点提高身体控制能力和上肢支撑力量的训练质量。     

花样游泳运动员功能性动作能力与力量素质的相关性研究

目的:探讨我国优秀花样游泳运动员功能性动作能力与力量素质的相关性,分析功能动作筛查测试与力量素质测试结果存在的内在联系,从专项视角探讨花样游泳运动项目的训练策略并提出建议。方法:选取国家花样游泳队14名健将级运动员为研究对象,对其进行FMS、握力、上肢力量、股内收肌群力量、躯干核心耐力、下肢爆发力测试,并对测试结果进行相关性分析。结果:1)14名花样游泳运动员FMS测试平均得分为15.21分,有5人测试得分低于运动损伤高风险的临界值(14分);2)FMS测试总分与Keiser坐姿上推(偏相关系数=0.622,P<0.05)、45°股内收肌群横向收缩力量(偏相关系数=0.652,P<0.05)、90°股内收肌群横向收缩力量(偏相关系数=0.746,P<0.01)均呈正相关;3)直线弓步蹲与Keiser坐姿上推(偏相关系数=0.711,P<0.05)、无反向纵跳(偏相关系数=0.661,P<0.05)、有反向纵跳(偏相关系数=0.614,P<0.05)和40 cm跳深跳高(偏相关系数=0.754,P<0.01)均呈正相关;肩部灵活性测试得分与Keiser下蹲上推(偏相关系数=0.575,P<0.05)、45°股内收肌群横向收缩力量(偏相关系数=0.585,P<0.05)以及90°股内收肌群横向收缩力量(r=0.867,P<0.01)均呈正相关,与仰桥耐力呈负相关(偏相关系数=0.701,P<0.05);旋转稳定性与40 cm跳深跳高呈正相关(偏相关系数=0.575,P<0.05)。结论:我国优秀花样游泳运动员髋关节主动灵活性和臀大肌-髂胫束联合等肌群的主动柔韧性较好,但存在膝关节、髋关节稳定性差、躯干核心区肌群控制力不足等问题,受主导臂和主导腿均为右侧影响,运动员身体两侧不平衡明显。运动员FMS测试得分并不能全面反映其力量素质的高低,FMS测试得分与部分力量素质测试结果存在相关性,可能与两种测试均涉及同一动力链结构系统肌群的协同工作和动作存在做功类型的相似性有关。     

Isokinetic trunk flexion–extension protocol to assess trunk muscle strength and endurance: Reliability,learning effect,and sex differences

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and the learning effect of an isokinetic trunk flexion–extension protocol designed to simultaneously assess trunk muscle strength and endurance. In addition, the effect of the participants' sex on the reliability data was examined.MethodsFifty-seven healthy and physically active young men (n = 28) and women (n = 29) performed the isokinetic protocol 5 times, separated by a week between each of the first 4 sessions and by a month between the last 2 sessions. The protocol consisted of performing 4 trials of 15 maximum flexion–extension concentric exertions at 120°/s (range of trunk motion = 50°). The absolute and relative peak torque and total work were calculated to assess trunk flexion and extension strength. In addition, endurance ratio, modified endurance ratio, fatigue final ratio, recovery ratio, and modified recovery ratio variables were used for the assessment of trunk muscle endurance in both directions.ResultsRegarding the absolute reliability, no relevant changes were found between paired-comparison sessions for most strength and endurance variables, except for total work and relative total work variables in the flexion movement in both sexes. In addition, the typical error of the isokinetic variables was lower than 10% in both males and females, and minimum detectable changes ranged from 7% to 20%, with a tendency to be higher in females and in endurance variables. The strength variables showed high-to-excellent intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs; >0.74); however, for the endurance variables only the endurance ratio and the modified endurance ratio obtained moderate-to-high ICC values (0.57 < ICC < 0.82). In addition, the analysis of the variance reported no significant differences between consecutive pairs of sessions for most variables in both sexes.ConclusionOverall, these findings provide clinicians, trainers, and researchers with a 10-min single-session protocol to perform a reliable muscle strength and endurance evaluation of trunk flexor and extensor muscles, all within the same protocol.     

Differences in take-off leg kinetics between horizontal and vertical single-leg rebound jumps

This study aimed to clarify the differences between the horizontal single-leg rebound jump (HJ) and vertical single-leg rebound jump (VJ) in terms of three-dimensional joint kinetics for the take-off leg, while focusing on frontal and transverse plane movements. Eleven male track and field athletes performed HJ and VJ. Kinematic and kinetic data were calculated using data recorded with a motion capture system and force platforms. The hip abduction torque, trunk lateral flexion torque (flexion for the swing-leg side), hip external and internal torque, trunk rotational torque, and the powers associated with these torques were larger when performing HJ because of resistance to the impact ground reaction force and because of pelvic and posture control. Pelvic rotation was noted in HJ, and this was controlled not only by the hip and trunk joint torque from the transverse plane but also by the hip abduction torque. Therefore, hip and trunk joint kinetics in the frontal and transverse plane play an important role in a single-leg jump, regardless of the jumping direction, and may also play a more important role in HJ than in VJ.     

基于艺术体操运动员形态、机能特征的体能训练研究

运用形态机能测试等研究方法,对我国艺术体操一线队员进行了较为全面的形态与机能测试研究,旨在探索艺术体操运动员形态、机能与体能训练的关系。结果显示:我国优秀艺术体操运动员具有体能训练的身体形态优势,身体机能水平在训练中较稳定,提示运动员有进行大运动量体能训练的潜力和空间,建议采用间歇训练方法加大运动强度和运动量,提高艺术体操运动员的成套体能水平,适应现代艺术体操技术发展对体能的需要。     

Kinematics of side and cross circles on pommel horse

Abstract

One of the most fundamental skills on the pommel horse is double leg circles (circles). Circles can be performed on all parts of the pommel horse. It was hypothesized that the different sets of physical constraints of the apparatus require a gymnast to adapt circles technique. The purpose of this study was to quantify how gymnasts modify their technique during circles to accommodate different physical obstacles due to different support surfaces and body orientations. To investigate these adaptations, a comparison of the two most common circles on pommel horse – namely, circles in cross support (cross-circles) and circles in side support (side-circles) – was carried out. Seven elite male gymnasts performed three sets of 10 cross-circles and side-circles on a pommel horse. Three-dimensional coordinates were acquired using 12 Qualisys ProReflex motion tracking cameras operating at 120 Hz. Temporal characteristics, the motion of the centre of mass, and the body angles – flexion and lateral flexion – were analysed. We found that cross-circles took less time to complete a single circle (0.92±0.02 vs. 0.95±0.02 s), had a smaller ratio for the rear support phase (0.15±0.02 vs. 0.18±0.03), a narrower supporting-hand distance (0.33±0.03 vs. 0.52±0.00 m), greater flexion of the body over the rear support phase (44±12° vs. 27±8°), and less lateral flexion of the body over the single-hand support phase (entry: 20±5° vs. 35±3°; exit: 26±4° vs. 33±4°) than side-circles. Our results suggest that gymnasts adapt their technique to the physical constraints imposed by the shape of the pommel horse and the location and orientation of the circles. Cross-circles were characterized by a high rear support position with a narrower hand-spacing, which would require excellent shoulder flexibility and strength. Consequently, lack of these traits may explain the need for greater body flexion in cross-circles than in side-circles during rear support. Understanding the technical differences will facilitate an effective transfer of the technical similarities among different types of circles.