瘦素与胰岛素抵抗关系及运动

瘦素与胰岛素关系密切,瘦素功能的发挥在胰岛素抵抗的发生发展过程中起着重要作用,其功能的紊乱是发生胰岛素抵抗的重要原因之一。瘦素和胰岛素之间存在相互调节,瘦素还参与胰岛素调节的细胞间信号传导通路的调控,在发挥各自生理功能的细胞间信号通路上两者存在交叉通路。瘦素和运动均可刺激肌肉中蛋白激酶（AMPK）的活化,增加AMPK的含量,提高了胰岛素（Insulin）的敏感性,加强了肌细胞对葡萄糖的摄入。     

Post-exercise ingestion of different amounts of protein affects plasma insulin concentration in humans

Abstract

The synergistic stimulating effect of combined intake of carbohydrate and protein on plasma insulin concentration has been reported previously. However, it remains unclear whether the amount of protein ingested after exercise affects the concentrations of plasma insulin and amino acids. This study of trained men compared the effects of post-exercise co-ingestion of carbohydrate plus different amounts of whey protein hydrolysates (WPHs) with carbohydrate alone on (1) blood biochemical parameters of carbohydrate metabolism during the post-exercise phase, and (2) endurance performance. Eight trained men exercised continuously for 70 min. Immediately after exercise and 30, 60, 90, and 120 min later, the participants received supplements containing: (1) 17.5 g carbohydrate, (2) 3.0 g WPHs and 17.5 g carbohydrate (L-WPH), or (3) 8.0 g WPHs and 17.5 g carbohydrate (H-WPH). After a 2-h recovery period, the participants performed an endurance performance test. The concentrations of blood glucose were lower and plasma insulin significantly higher in the H-WPH trial compared with the carbohydrate trial. The concentrations of plasma amino acids were increased in a dose-dependent manner following ingestion of different amounts of WPHs with carbohydrate. Endurance performance was not significantly different between the three trials. Co-ingestion of carbohydrate and H-WPH was more effective than ingestion of carbohydrate alone for stimulating insulin secretion and increasing the availability of plasma amino acids. These results suggest that plasma concentrations of amino acids during the recovery period are determined by the amount of dietary protein ingested, and that it is necessary to increase the concentration of plasma amino acids above a certain level to stimulate insulin secretion.     

Pre-exercise carbohydrate and fat ingestion: effects on metabolism and performance

A key goal of pre-exercise nutritional strategies is to maximize carbohydrate stores, thereby minimizing the ergolytic effects of carbohydrate depletion. Increased dietary carbohydrate intake in the days before competition increases muscle glycogen levels and enhances exercise performance in endurance events lasting 90 min or more. Ingestion of carbohydrate 3-4 h before exercise increases liver and muscle glycogen and enhances subsequent endurance exercise performance. The effects of carbohydrate ingestion on blood glucose and free fatty acid concentrations and carbohydrate oxidation during exercise persist for at least 6 h. Although an increase in plasma insulin following carbohydrate ingestion in the hour before exercise inhibits lipolysis and liver glucose output, and can lead to transient hypoglycaemia during subsequent exercise in susceptible individuals, there is no convincing evidence that this is always associated with impaired exercise performance. However, individual experience should inform individual practice. Interventions to increase fat availability before exercise have been shown to reduce carbohydrate utilization during exercise, but do not appear to have ergogenic benefits.     

FAT/CD36表达及转位在有氧运动改善老年小鼠骨骼肌胰岛素敏感性中的作用

目的:通过分析运动对老年小鼠骨骼肌脂肪酸转位酶(fatty acid translocase,FAT/CD36)向细胞膜和/或线粒体膜转位及其在脂筏中定位的影响,探讨FAT/CD36表达及转位机制在有氧运动改善老年小鼠骨骼肌胰岛素敏感性中的作用。方法:首先,利用siRNA干扰技术,在C2C12细胞中进行FAT/CD36基因敲低,探讨FAT/CD36基因缺乏对骨骼肌细胞胰岛素信号通路的影响。其次,将56周龄雄性C57BL/6J小鼠随机分为2组,老年对照组(aging control,AC;n=10)和老年运动组(aging exercise,AE;n=10)。有氧运动干预16周。RT-PCR法检测FAT/CD36及其他脂肪酸转运载体mRNA水平。Western blotting法检测FAT/CD36蛋白表达及胰岛素信号通路磷酸化水平。免疫荧光法分别检测FAT/CD36与小窝蛋白-1(Caveolin-1)及电压依赖性阴离子通道蛋白(voltage-dependent anion channel,VDAC)的共定位程度。结果:FAT/CD36基因缺乏能够激活骨骼肌细胞AKT/ERK信号通路。与AC组相比,AE组FAT/CD36和CPT-1的mRNA水平明显降低(P<0.05),其他脂肪酸转运载体m RNA水平变化不显著(P>0.05)。与AC相比,AE组FAT/CD36蛋白水平明显降低(P<0.05),AKT/ERK磷酸化水平明显升高(P<0.05)。免疫荧光结果显示,运动诱导FAT/CD36向细胞膜转位,而非向线粒体膜转位。结论:FAT/CD36在调节骨骼肌胰岛素信号通路中具有重要作用,并且运动可能通过调节FAT/CD36的表达及转位预防衰老诱导的骨骼肌胰岛素敏感性下降。     

AS160与TBC1D1:胰岛素和运动/骨骼肌收缩诱导葡萄糖转运的汇聚点

运动和胰岛素是诱导骨骼肌葡萄糖转运的两种重要生理因素，两者均能通过不同的信号转导通路诱导GLUT4从细胞内转位到细胞膜表面，从而调控骨骼肌的葡萄糖转运。研究表明，TBC1家族结构域家族成员蛋白激酶B蛋白底物160KDa（AS160/TBC1D4）和TBC1D1这两种同源蛋白均可在运动或胰岛素诱导下发生磷酸化，两者可能是运动和胰岛素调控骨骼肌葡萄糖转运信号通路的关键汇聚点。综述AS160与TBC1D1在胰岛素诱导骨骼肌葡萄糖转运中的不同作用以及运动/骨骼肌收缩对其的影响及其机制，以期深入了解运动如何改善胰岛素敏感性、为更科学的运动处方及其他干预措施的研发提供有价值的理论支持。     

Nutritional needs of elite endurance athletes. Part I: Carbohydrate and fluid requirements

Abstract

Both carbohydrate depletion and dehydration have been shown to decrease performance whilst severe dehydration can also cause adverse health effects. Therefore carbohydrate and fluid requirements are increased with exercise. Ingestion of 200–300?g of CHO 3–4?h prior to exercise is an effective strategy in order to meet daily CHO demands and increase CHO availability during the subsequent exercise period. There is little evidence that CHO during the hour immediately prior to exercise has adverse effects such as rebound hypoglycaemia. CHO ingestion during exercise has been shown to improve performance as measured by enhanced work output or decreased exercise time to complete a fixed amount of work. Recent studies have demonstrated that exogenous CHO oxidation rates can be increased by ingesting combinations of CHO that use different intestinal CHO transporters. After exercise maximal muscle glycogen re-synthesis rates can be achieved by ingesting CHO at a rate of ～1.2?g/kg/h, in relatively frequent (e.g., 15–30?min) intervals for up to 5?h following exercise. Protein amino acid mixtures may increase glycogen synthesis further but only if relatively small amounts of CHO are ingested.

Hypohydration and hyperthermia alone have negative effects on performance but their combination is particularly serious, both in terms of performance and health. Dehydration can be prevented by fluid ingestion pre exercise and during exercise. Because of large individual differences it is difficult to individualise the advice. Perhaps the best guidance for athletes is to weigh themselves to assess fluid losses during training and racing and limit weight losses to 1% during exercise lasting longer than 1.5?h. Excessive fluid intake has been associated with hyponatremia. Post exercise the volume of fluid ingested and sodium intake are important determinants of rehydration.     

运动中骨骼肌蛋白周转率的变化和调节机制

蛋白合成和蛋白降解的细胞过程在维持骨骼肌质量方面起着重要的作用,蛋白的降解清除受损蛋白,蛋白合成生成新的蛋白。力量型和非力量型研究表明运动中蛋白合成受到抑制,蛋白降解没有改变。抑制蛋白合成原因可能与mRNA翻译的起始和延长的步骤有关,涉及到真核起始因子4E结合蛋白1和真核延长因子2磷酸化。充分认识这些过程的变化机制有利于为增加骨骼肌质量,提供新的干预、治疗和康复策略。     

Exercise-induced oxidative stress: Friend or foe?

The first report demonstrating that prolonged endurance exercise promotes oxidative stress in humans was published more than 4 decades ago. Since this discovery, many ensuing investigations have corroborated the fact that muscular exercise increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and results in oxidative stress in numerous tissues including blood and skeletal muscles. Although several tissues may contribute to exercise-induced ROS production, it is predicted that muscular contractions stimulate ROS production in active muscle fibers and that skeletal muscle is a primary source of ROS production during exercise. This contraction-induced ROS generation is associated with (1) oxidant damage in several tissues (e.g., increased protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation), (2) accelerated muscle fatigue, and (3) activation of biochemical signaling pathways that contribute to exercise-induced adaptation in the contracting muscle fibers. While our understanding of exercise and oxidative stress has advanced rapidly during the last decades, questions remain about whether exercise-induced increases in ROS production are beneficial or harmful to health. This review addresses this issue by discussing the site(s) of oxidant production during exercise and detailing the health consequences of exercise-induced ROS production.     

氨和运动

氨是氨基酸代谢的产物。运动时肌肉氨基酸代谢增强，运动肌肉从摄取氨转向释放氨；运动使肝血流量下降，氨通过合成尿素而解毒的速率下降，使血氨浓度升高。本文论述了运动时骨骼肌产氨的途径，高血氨对中枢神经系统的影响，以及高血氨与周围疲劳和中枢性疲劳的关系。     

Nutritional strategies to influence adaptations to training

This article highlights new nutritional concerns or practices that may influence the adaptation to training. The discussion is based on the assumption that the adaptation to repeated bouts of training occurs during recovery periods and that if one can train harder, the adaptation will be greater. The goal is to maximize with nutrition the recovery/adaptation that occurs in all rest periods, such that recovery before the next training session is complete. Four issues have been identified where recent scientific information will force sports nutritionists to embrace new issues and reassess old issues and, ultimately, alter the nutritional recommendations they give to athletes. These are: (1) caffeine ingestion; (2) creatine ingestion; (3) the use of intramuscular triacylglycerol (IMTG) as a fuel during exercise and the nutritional effects on IMTG repletion following exercise; and (4) the role nutrition may play in regulating the expression of genes during and after exercise training sessions. Recent findings suggest that low doses of caffeine exert significant ergogenic effects by directly affecting the central nervous system during exercise. Caffeine can cross the blood–brain barrier and antagonize the effects of adenosine, resulting in higher concentrations of stimulatory neurotransmitters. These new data strengthen the case for using low doses of caffeine during training. On the other hand, the data on the role that supplemental creatine ingestion plays in augmenting the increase in skeletal muscle mass and strength during resistance training remain equivocal. Some studies are able to demonstrate increases in muscle fibre size with creatine ingestion and some are not. The final two nutritional topics are new and have not progressed to the point that we can specifically identify strategies to enhance the adaptation to training. However, it is likely that nutritional strategies will be needed to replenish the IMTG that is used during endurance exercise. It is not presently clear whether the IMTG store is chronically reduced when engaging in daily sessions of endurance training or if this impacts negatively on the ability to train. It is also likely that the increased interest in gene and protein expression measurements will lead to nutritional strategies to optimize the adaptations that occur in skeletal muscle during and after exercise training sessions. Research in these areas in the coming years will lead to strategies designed to improve the adaptive response to training.     

Nutritional strategies to influence adaptations to training

This article highlights new nutritional concerns or practices that may influence the adaptation to training. The discussion is based on the assumption that the adaptation to repeated bouts of training occurs during recovery periods and that if one can train harder, the adaptation will be greater. The goal is to maximize with nutrition the recovery/adaptation that occurs in all rest periods, such that recovery before the next training session is complete. Four issues have been identified where recent scientific information will force sports nutritionists to embrace new issues and reassess old issues and, ultimately, alter the nutritional recommendations they give to athletes. These are: (1) caffeine ingestion; (2) creatine ingestion; (3) the use of intramuscular triacylglycerol (IMTG) as a fuel during exercise and the nutritional effects on IMTG repletion following exercise; and (4) the role nutrition may play in regulating the expression of genes during and after exercise training sessions. Recent findings suggest that low doses of caffeine exert significant ergogenic effects by directly affecting the central nervous system during exercise. Caffeine can cross the blood-brain barrier and antagonize the effects of adenosine, resulting in higher concentrations of stimulatory neurotransmitters. These new data strengthen the case for using low doses of caffeine during training. On the other hand, the data on the role that supplemental creatine ingestion plays in augmenting the increase in skeletal muscle mass and strength during resistance training remain equivocal. Some studies are able to demonstrate increases in muscle fibre size with creatine ingestion and some are not. The final two nutritional topics are new and have not progressed to the point that we can specifically identify strategies to enhance the adaptation to training. However, it is likely that nutritional strategies will be needed to replenish the IMTG that is used during endurance exercise. It is not presently clear whether the IMTG store is chronically reduced when engaging in daily sessions of endurance training or if this impacts negatively on the ability to train. It is also likely that the increased interest in gene and protein expression measurements will lead to nutritional strategies to optimize the adaptations that occur in skeletal muscle during and after exercise training sessions. Research in these areas in the coming years will lead to strategies designed to improve the adaptive response to training.     

力量和耐力组合训练分子产生的干扰机制和训练学上的对策

耐力训练对骨骼肌重量的影响相对较少,而力量训练可显著诱导运动肌发生肥大。不同的训练方式诱导适应的分子机制是不同的,激活和表达各自特异的信号通路和相关的基因。力量和耐力进行组合训练时,在分子水平存在一个干扰现象,不同训练方式可诱导细胞内信号通路产生拮抗,从而抵消骨骼肌对不同运动方式产生特异性适应。当前,一些训练学上的对策已经被证明能够有效降低力量和耐力组合训练产生的干扰。对这一问题的认识有助于我们理解骨骼肌疾病的病因、老龄化时维持其新陈代谢和功能以及运动员的运动训练。     

补充支链氨基酸对不同项目运动员作用及安全性的机制研究进展

支链氨基酸（BCAAs）是蛋白类运动营养补剂中相当重要的营养素,不同项目的运动员由于膳食不能满足大强度运动训练的营养需求,经常需要额外补充含BCAAs的蛋白类营养补剂。但长期过量地补充可能对机体的免疫力、肾脏功能、消化系统等产生不良影响。采用文献综述法,对补充支链氨基酸对抗阻运动和耐力运动的作用机制进行了总结,并分析其对机体免疫力的影响和过量补充的负面影响机制,探讨运动员如何合理补充支链氨基酸,避免对身体造成损害。     

Nutritional strategies for promoting fat utilization and delaying the onset of fatigue during prolonged exercise

Carbohydrate ingestion before and during endurance exercise delays the onset of fatigue (reduced power output). Therefore, endurance athletes are recommended to ingest diets high in carbohydrate (70% of total energy) during competition and training. However, increasing the availability of plasma free fatty acids has been shown to slow the rate of muscle and liver glycogen depletion by promoting the utilization of fat. Ingested fat, in the form of long-chain (C 16-22 ) triacylglycerols, is largely unavailable during acute exercise, but medium-chain (C 8-10 ) triacylglycerols are rapidly absorbed and oxidized. We have shown that the ingestion of medium-chain triacylglycerols in combination with carbohydrate spares muscle carbohydrate stores during 2 h of submaximal (< 70% VO 2 peak) cycling exercise, and improves 40 km time-trial performance. These data suggest that by combining carbohydrate and medium-chain triacylglycerols as a pre-exercise supplement and as a nutritional supplement during exercise, fat oxidation will be enhanced, and endogenous carbohydrate will be spared. We have also examined the chronic metabolic adaptations and effects on substrate utilization and endurance performance when athletes ingest a diet that is high in fat (> 70% by energy). Dietary fat adaptation for a period of at least 2-4 weeks has resulted in a nearly two-fold increase in resistance to fatigue during prolonged, low- to moderate-intensity cycling (< 70% VO 2 peak). Moreover, preliminary studies suggest that mean cycling 20 km time-trial performance following prolonged submaximal exercise is enhanced by 80 s after dietary fat adaptation and 3 days of carbohydrate loading. Thus the relative contribution of fuel substrate to prolonged endurance activity may be modified by training, pre-exercise feeding, habitual diet, or by artificially altering the hormonal milieu or the availability of circulating fuels. The time course and dose-response of these effects on maximizing the oxidative contribution of fat for exercise metabolism and in exercise performance have not been systematically studied during moderate- to high-intensity exercise in humans.     

Glucose–fructose ingestion and exercise performance: The gastrointestinal tract and beyond

Carbohydrate ingestion can improve endurance exercise performance. In the past two decades, research has repeatedly reported the performance benefits of formulations comprising both glucose and fructose (GLUFRU) over those based on glucose (GLU). This has been usually related to additive effects of these two monosaccharides on the gastrointestinal tract whereby intestinal carbohydrate absorption is enhanced and discomfort limited. This is only a partial explanation, since glucose and fructose are also metabolized through different pathways after being absorbed from the gut. In contrast to glucose that is readily used by every body cell type, fructose is specifically targeted to the liver where it is mainly converted into glucose and lactate. The ingestion of GLUFRU may thereby profoundly alter hepatic function ultimately raising both glucose and lactate fluxes. During exercise, this particular profile of circulating carbohydrate may induce a spectrum of effects on muscle metabolism possibly resulting in an improved performance. Compared to GLU alone, GLUFRU ingestion could also induce several non-metabolic effects which are so far largely unexplored. Through its metabolite lactate, fructose may act on central fatigue and/or alter metabolic regulation. Future research could further define the effects of GLUFRU over other exercise modalities and different athletic populations, using several of the hypotheses discussed in this review.     

运动对胰岛素抵抗状态下瘦素-AMPK-ACC信号转导通路的影响

近年来,以胰岛素抵抗和瘦素抵抗为主要特征的肥胖和二型糖尿病患病率不断上升。对瘦素受体后AMPK-ACC信号转导通路的研究表明,信号转导通路障碍是引发肥胖和二型糖尿病的重要原因。生理状态下,脂肪组织分泌瘦素,在与其受体结合后,通过活化细胞中的AMPK,使乙酰辅酶A羧化酶(ACC)失活,脂肪酸合成减少;同时活化丙二酸单酰辅酶A脱羧酶(MCD),导致丙二酸单酰辅酶A(MA)浓度下降,进而导致脂肪酸氧化速率增加,起到减少脂肪储备、减轻体重的作用。胰岛素抵抗状态下,AMPK磷酸化水平降低,ACC活性增强,脂肪酸合成增加、氧化速率下降。运动是改善胰岛素抵抗的重要手段,该文介绍生理状态及胰岛素抵抗状态下瘦素受体后AMPK-ACC信号转导通路各蛋白级联作用以及运动对各蛋白变化趋势的影响。     

The brain and fatigue: new opportunities for nutritional interventions?

It is clear that the cause of fatigue is complex, influenced by events occurring in both the periphery and the central nervous system. Work conducted over the last 20 years has focused on the role of brain serotonin and catecholamines in the development of fatigue, and the possibility that manipulation of neurotransmitter precursors may delay the onset of fatigue. While there is some evidence that branched-chain amino acid and tyrosine ingestion can influence perceived exertion and some measures of mental performance, the results of several apparently well-controlled laboratory studies have not demonstrated a positive effect on exercise capacity or performance under temperate conditions. As football is highly reliant upon the successful execution of motor skills and tactics, the possibility that amino acid ingestion may help to attenuate a loss in cognitive function during the later stages of a game would be desirable, even in the absence of no apparent benefit to physical performance. There are several reports of enhanced performance of high-intensity intermittent exercise with carbohydrate ingestion, but at present it is difficult to separate the peripheral effects from any potential impact on the central nervous system. The possibility that changes in central neurotransmission play a role in the aetiology of fatigue when exercise is performed in high ambient temperatures has recently been examined, although the significance of this in relation to the pattern of activity associated with football has yet to be determined.     

运动预处理与心肌保护

心肌缺血预处理是有效的保护心肌免于损伤的内源性保护措施。近年来的大量实验研究表明,运动对心肌损伤具有保护作用。通过综述阐明运动对抗心肌缺血性损伤的保护机制,以期推进运动预处理的研究,有助于预防和治疗心肌损伤,并为在运动训练中保护心脏提供新思路。     

Protein and amino acids for athletes

The main determinants of an athlete's protein needs are their training regime and habitual nutrient intake. Most athletes ingest sufficient protein in their habitual diet. Additional protein will confer only a minimal, albeit arguably important, additional advantage. Given sufficient energy intake, lean body mass can be maintained within a wide range of protein intakes. Since there is limited evidence for harmful effects of a high protein intake and there is a metabolic rationale for the efficacy of an increase in protein, if muscle hypertrophy is the goal, a higher protein intake within the context of an athlete's overall dietary requirements may be beneficial. However, there are few convincing outcome data to indicate that the ingestion of a high amount of protein (2-3 g x kg(-1) BW x day(-1), where BW = body weight) is necessary. Current literature suggests that it may be too simplistic to rely on recommendations of a particular amount of protein per day. Acute studies suggest that for any given amount of protein, the metabolic response is dependent on other factors, including the timing of ingestion in relation to exercise and/or other nutrients, the composition of ingested amino acids and the type of protein.     

Cow's milk as a post-exercise recovery drink: implications for performance and health

Abstract

Post-exercise recovery is a multi-facetted process that will vary depending on the nature of the exercise, the time between exercise sessions and the goals of the exerciser. From a nutritional perspective, the main considerations are: (1) optimisation of muscle protein turnover; (2) glycogen resynthesis; (3) rehydration; (4) management of muscle soreness; (5) appropriate management of energy balance. Milk is approximately isotonic (osmolality of 280–290?mosmol/kg), and the mixture of high quality protein, carbohydrate, water and micronutrients (particularly sodium) make it uniquely suitable as a post-exercise recovery drink in many exercise scenarios. Research has shown that ingestion of milk post-exercise has the potential to beneficially impact both acute recovery and chronic training adaptation. Milk augments post-exercise muscle protein synthesis and rehydration, can contribute to post-exercise glycogen resynthesis, and attenuates post-exercise muscle soreness/function losses. For these aspects of recovery, milk is at least comparable and often out performs most commercially available recovery drinks, but is available at a fraction of the cost, making it a cheap and easy option to facilitate post-exercise recovery. Milk ingestion post-exercise has also been shown to attenuate subsequent energy intake and may lead to more favourable body composition changes with exercise training. This means that those exercising for weight management purposes might be able to beneficially influence post-exercise recovery, whilst maintaining the energy deficit created by exercise.