Physical fitness of primary school children in relation to overweight prevalence and physical activity habits

A cross-sectional study was carried out to analyse, through a limited number of fitness tests, the main conditioning and coordinative abilities in children aged 8-9 years, and their relationship with gender, anthropometric variables and physical activity habits. The height and weight of 256 boys and 241 girls were measured and information about physical activity habits was collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Physical performance was assessed by means of a few standardised tests: 'sit & reach', medicine-ball forward throw, standing long jump, 20 m running speed, and forward roll test. In both boys and girls, body weight and body mass index (BMI) were positively correlated with the medicine-ball throw performances and negatively correlated for the standing long jump and speed tests, while no association was found with tests measuring back flexibility and total body coordination. Daily physical activity and participation in sport were not significantly correlated with body weight and BMI, but were positively associated with children's motor performance. The standardised fitness tests selected in the current study have been found to be suitable to identify fitness levels of primary school children. Thanks to their limited number and ease of measurement, they can be used in any school context to classify children and for monitoring the effects of targeted interventions promoting physical activity.     

Physical fitness of primary school children in relation to overweight prevalence and physical activity habits

Abstract

A cross-sectional study was carried out to analyse, through a limited number of fitness tests, the main conditioning and coordinative abilities in children aged 8–9 years, and their relationship with gender, anthropometric variables and physical activity habits. The height and weight of 256 boys and 241 girls were measured and information about physical activity habits was collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Physical performance was assessed by means of a few standardised tests: ‘sit & reach’, medicine-ball forward throw, standing long jump, 20 m running speed, and forward roll test. In both boys and girls, body weight and Body Mass Index (BMI) were positively correlated with the medicine-ball throw performances and negatively correlated for the standing long jump and speed tests, while no association was found with tests measuring back flexibility and total body coordination. Daily physical activity and participation in sport were not significantly correlated with body weight and BMI, but were positively associated with children's motor performance. The standardised fitness tests selected in the current study have been found to be suitable to identify fitness levels of primary school children. Thanks to their limited number and ease of measurement, they can be used in any school context to classify children and for monitoring the effects of targeted interventions promoting physical activity.     

Age and sex differences in motor performance of pre-school Nigerian children

Differences in motor performance according to chronological age and gender of 341 young Nigerian children (ages 3 to 5) were examined. Motor test items designed by Morris et al. (1981) were administered to the subjects. Analysis of variance was used to determine significant differences in the motor performance of the groups. In the whole sample, more age differences than sex differences in performance were noted. Except for the balancing and running performances of the girls, a fairly linear trend of improvement with age was observed in the motor performances of the groups. At each age level the boys consistently performed better than the girls in four of the six motor tests (catching, standing long jump, tennis ball throw and speed run). Generally, the 4- and 5-year-old children performed homogeneously, with a great disparity in performance noted for the 3-year-old children. The results of this study confirm that age and sex differences in motor performance occur at early childhood. Prospective studies should seek to control the extraneous factors which influence motor development and account for the observed differences in motor performance of pre-school children.     

Age and sex differences in motor performance of pre‐school Nigerian children

Differences in motor performance according to chronological age and gender of 341 young Nigerian children (ages 3 to 5) were examined. Motor test items designed by Morris et al. (1981) were administered to the subjects. Analysis of variance was used to determine significant differences in the motor performance of the groups. In the whole sample, more age differences than sex differences in performance were noted. Except for the balancing and running performances of the girls, a fairly linear trend of improvement with age was observed in the motor performances of the groups. At each age level the boys consistently performed better than the girls in four of the six motor tests (catching, standing long jump, tennis ball throw and speed run). Generally, the 4‐ and 5‐year‐old children performed homogeneously, with a great disparity in performance noted for the 3‐year‐old children. The results of this study confirm that age and sex differences in motor performance occur at early childhood. Prospective studies should seek to control the extraneous factors which influence motor development and account for the observed differences in motor performance of pre‐school children.     

Body Fatness and Motor Performance During Preadolescence

Abstract

Performance differences between males and females have been attributed to both biological and cultural factors, although the relative significance of each has not been ascertained. Differences in body fatness between males and females has been frequently mentioned as one biological factor responsible for variations in physical performance. In children, it has been shown that boys exhibit slightly higher performance levels than girls until adolescence, when the differences favoring the boys become greater. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between selected physical performance tests and body fatness in preadolescent boys and girls. Measures of age, height, weight, skinfold thicknesses at two sites, and performance scores on the vertical jump, standing broad jump, modified pullup, 40-yard dash, and 400-yard run were obtained on 563 elementary school children. The results of a one-way ANOVA indicated that there was a significant difference between boys and girls on all of the physical performance tests. Although the boys were slightly taller and heavier and scored better than the girls on the performance tests, there was no significant difference between the sexes in the sum of two skinfolds. Separate regression equations for the sum of two skinfolds by performance on each test indicated that, with the exception of the modified pullup test, body fatness was only marginally related to performance. These findings indicated that, although inversely related to the ability to move the total body weight, body fatness was of minimal importance in explaining performance differences between young boys and girls.     

Deleterious effects of obesity on physical fitness in pre-pubertal children

The prevalence of obesity in children has increased dramatically during the past decades in Europe and understanding physical fitness and its components in children is critical to design and implement effective interventions. The objective of the present study was to analyse the association between physical fitness (aerobic, speed, agility, power, flexibility and balance) and body mass index (BMI) in pre-pubertal children. A total of 2411 healthy schoolchildren (7–11 years) participated in this study. Anthropometric characteristics and body composition were assessed by skinfold thickness. Physical fitness was measured by nine physical fitness tests: endurance running, 20 m running speed, agility, handgrip strength, standing long jump and squat jump, sit and reach, medicine ball forward throw and static balance. No relevant differences were observed between boys and girls regarding anthropometric characteristics, body composition and physical fitness. However, overweight and obese children showed significantly lower physical fitness levels in endurance running, speed and agility (mean: +18.8, +5.5 and +14.5% of time to complete tasks, respectively), lower limb power normalised to body mass (?23.3%) and balance tests (number of falls: +165.5%) than their normal weight counterparts. On the other hand, obesity did not affect handgrip, throwing and flexibility. In conclusion, increased BMI was associated with lower performance capabilities limiting proper motor skill development, which directly affects the ability of children to take on sports skills. Actions undertaken to promote children's wellness and fitness should be prioritised and introduced early in life with the aim of enhancing physical fitness as well as preventing overweight and obesity.     

Kinematic analysis of the standing long jump in children 6- to 12-years-old

The purpose of this study was to analyze the kinematic variables that determine the performance of the standing long jump in children 6- to 12-years-old. There were 121 healthy children (58 girls) recorded while they performed the standing long jump test. All kinematic variables showed a significant correlation with calculated jump distance and measured jump distance, except for the knee joint angle at maximum shoulder extension angle, ankle joint angle at maximum shoulder extension angle, and shoulder joint angle at maximum knee flexion angle. Stepwise multiple regression analysis showed that sex, age, and body mass index accounted for 51.1% of the jump distance variance. Among all the kinematic variables, take-off distance and take-off speed were accounted for the most of the variation in the jump distance. Physical education teachers and coaches should consider special attention to these anthropometrics and kinematic aspects in improving the standing long jump performance in children.     

Body image, perceived and actual physical abilities in normal-weight and overweight boys involved in individual and team sports

The aim of the study was to examine the relationships among body image, perception of physical abilities, and motor performance in boys involved in organized individual (i.e. tennis, fencing, judo) and team (i.e. soccer, handball, volleyball) sports. Altogether, 162 children (12.6 ± 1.0 years) were categorized as normal-weight (n = 85) or overweight (n = 77). Body image was measured using Collins' Child Figure Drawings, while individuals' perceptions of strength, speed, and agility were assessed using the Perceived Physical Ability Scale. Fitness tests of the standing long jump, 20 m sprint, and 10 × 5 m shuttle-run were also administered. Overweight boys showed greater body dissatisfaction and lower actual physical abilities than normal-weight peers. Participants involved in team sports reported lower body dissatisfaction and better performances in the shuttle-run compared with those involved in individual sports. For boys participating in team sports, body dissatisfaction was a significant mediator of the effect of body mass index on perceived physical ability. Results may influence intervention efforts, suggesting that targeting personal, psychological, and physical factors may prove efficient across physical activity locations and weight groups.     

超重肥胖初中生形态、生理、运动能力特点及其相关性分析

目的:探讨超重肥胖初中生形态、生理特点与运动能力间的关系,了解超重肥胖初中生的运动能力特征,为青少年超重肥胖的运动干预方案设计提供指导。方法:对某中学初中生进行测试,筛选出超重肥胖学生,从中选取40名,在正常学生中选取40名作为对照组进行身体形态及运动能力测试,对测试数据进行统计分析。结果显示:超重肥胖初中生血压偏高;肺活量偏高,但肺活量指数远低于正常初中生;初中生运动能力降低,50m跑,长跑、立定跳等成绩低于正常初中生,而投掷、握力与正常组无差异;通过相关性分析表明,BMI和%BF同50m、长跑、立定跳等相关性显著。     

Low fundamental movement skill proficiency is associated with high BMI and body fatness in girls but not boys aged 6–11 years old

This study examined differences in children’s body mass index (BMI) and body fatness (BF%) as a function of gender and fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency. Following ethics approval and parental consent, 248, 6–11 year-old children (112 boys, 136 girls) underwent assessment of 7 FMS: sprint run, side gallop, hop, kick, catch, throw and vertical jump. FMS tertiles (“high”, “medium” or “low” FMS) were created based on the summed components of the FMS. Skinfold measures were used to calculate BF%. Physical activity (PA) was assessed using pedometry and maturation predicted using anthropometry. Data were analysed using a 2 (Gender) × 3 (FMS tertile) ways analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), controlling for age, maturation and PA. Age (P = .001) and maturation (P = .006) were associated with BMI. Girls classified as high FMS proficiency had significantly lower BMI compared to girls with low and medium FMS proficiency. Age (P = .0001) and maturation (P = .007) were associated with BF%. BF% was also higher for girls with low FMS compared to those with medium and high FMS. BF% and BMI were not different across FMS tertile in boys. Such findings suggest focusing on FMS may be especially important for healthy weight, particularly in girls.     

Relationships between body composition and fundamental movement skills among children and adolescents

The purpose of this study was to examine associations of fundamental movement skills (FMS) with measures of body composition among children and adolescents. Secondary analyses of cross-sectional data collected from 4,363 children and adolescents in Grades 4, 6, 8, and 10 as part of the 1997 New South Wales Schools Fitness and Physical Activity Survey were conducted. Six FMS (run, vertical jump, throw, catch, kick, and strike) were assessed by observation. Height and weight (used to calculate body mass index; BMI) and waist circumference were directly measured. Results indicated that the children's and adolescents' ability to perform FMS was significantly related to BMI and waist circumference. Specifically, BMI and waist circumference were significant predictors for FMS in six of the eight demographic groups. Adjusted odds ratios revealed that overweight boys and girls in all grades were less likely to possess high levels of FMS and more likely to possess low levels of FMS than those who weren't overweight. When FMS were partitioned into locomotor and object-control skills, nonoverweight boys and girls in each grade were two to three times more likely to possess more advanced locomotor skills than overweight boys and girls. However, for object-control skills, the only demographic groups in which nonoverweight students possessed a greater number of advanced skills than overweight students were boys in Grades 6 and 10. There appear to be significant and important associations between performance of locomotor skills and weight status among children and adolescents. This would suggest that intervention strategies to prevent unhealthy weight gain among children and youth might usefully include increasing proficiency of locomotor skills as a key component.     

浙江省城市学龄前儿童下肢力量发展特点

对浙江省25所幼儿园3～6岁的5 267名学前儿童进行立定跳远和10m连续跳测试,观察浙江省学龄前儿童的下肢力量发展情况,旨在为评价学前儿童下肢的活动能力及其发展趋势以及探寻运动素质发展敏感期提供参考依据。结果发现3～6岁幼儿的立定跳及连续跳成绩随年龄的增长而显著增加。性别因素对两个指标的测试成绩有明显的影响,但对两次测试的变化率没有影响。分析得出浙江省城市3～6岁男童立定跳能力显著强于同年龄段女童,在3岁时增长速率最大;连续跳成绩男女组在相同年龄段几乎没有差异,结合立定跳成绩分析显示,女童的下肢协调性优于同年龄段男童。     

The 1991 C. H. McCloy Research Lecture: Unraveling the Mystery of the Response Complexity Effect in Skilled Movements

Abstract

From the records in three track-and-field events (standing broad jump, softball throw, and six-second run), the ages, the heights, and the weights were obtained from 882 boys and 900 girls ranging in ages from 9 to 17 years. The relationship between ability in athletics (as measured by the records in the three track-and-field events) and the variables of age, height, and weight was, for the boys and for the girls, found to be nonlinear.     

对山东省3～6岁幼儿体能指标的现状、特点及变化规律的研究

通过对山东省3～6岁幼儿10米往返跑、立定跳远、网球掷远、双腿连续跳、坐位体前屈、走平衡木6项体能指标的测试，分析了山东省3～6岁男女、城乡幼儿体能变化的年龄、性别与城乡特点，揭示了其自然变化的趋势与规律。     

《国民体质测定标准》(幼儿部分)网球掷远和立定跳远的分析与研究

运用体质测试和数理统计法,对《国民体质测定标准》(幼儿部分)中网球掷远和立定跳远的测试结果进行分析,并通过蹬力测试和拉力测试进行对比。结果表明,由于幼儿的投掷技术和跳跃技术掌握较差,测试结果误差较大,所以,网球掷远和立定跳远不能准确地评价幼儿身体素质的发展状况。     

武汉市3-6岁幼儿体质现状调查研究

了解和掌握武汉市3-6岁幼儿体质健康现状和变化规律。采用文献资料法、测量法、数理统计法分别从性别、年龄、城乡三个方面对武汉市948名幼儿进行研究分析。结果显示：男幼儿的身高、体重、胸围、坐高4项身体形态指标显著高于女幼儿,而且男女幼儿的4项指标均随着年龄的增长有显著性增加;乡村幼儿的坐高显著高于城镇幼儿的坐高;在身体机能指标安静心率上,3岁幼儿的安静心率显著高于4-6岁幼儿,乡村幼儿的安静心率要显著低于城镇幼儿;在身体素质指标中,立定跳远、网球掷远、坐位体前屈、10m折返跑、走平衡木完成时间和双脚连续跳在年龄上均存在显著性差异;走平衡木完成时间在性别上不存在显著性差异,其余5项指标均在性别上差异显著;立定跳远和坐位体前屈不存在城乡上的差异,其余4项指标均存在城乡上的差异,且差异显著。不同性别、年龄和城乡幼儿的体质现状存在显著性差异,3-6岁幼儿的体质发展存在关键期。     

‘Sportmotorische Bestandesaufnahme’: Criterion- vs. norm-based reference values of fitness tests for Swiss first grade children

Abstract

Health is closely linked to physical activity and fitness. It is therefore important to monitor fitness in children. Although many reports on physical tests have been published, data comparison between studies is an issue. This study reports Swiss first grade norm values of fitness tests and compares these with criterion reference data. A total of 10,565 boys (7.18 ± 0.42 years) and 10,204 girls (7.14 ± 0.41 years) were tested for standing long jump, plate tapping, 20-m shuttle run, lateral jump and 20-m sprint. Average values for six-, seven- and eight-year-olds were analysed and reference curves for age were constructed. Z-values were generated for comparisons with criterion references reported in the literature. Results were better for all disciplines in seven-year-old first grade children compared to six-year-old children (p < 0.01). Eight-year-old children did not perform better compared to seven-year-old children in the sprint run (p = 0.11), standing long jump (p > 0.99) and shuttle run (p = 0.43), whereas they were better in all other disciplines compared to their younger peers. The average performance of boys was better than girls except for tapping at the age of 8 (p = 0.06). Differences in performance due to testing protocol and setting must be considered when test values from a first grade setting are compared to criterion-based benchmarks. In a classroom setting, younger children tended to have better results and older children tended to have worse outcomes when compared to their age group criterion reference values. Norm reference data are valid allowing comparison with other data generated by similar test protocols applied in a classroom setting.     

Effects of a kindergarten-based,family-involved intervention on motor performance ability in 3- to 6-year-old children: the ToyBox-study

This study targeted to examine the effect of the ToyBox-intervention, a kindergarten-based, family-involved intervention, aiming to improve preschooler’s energy-related behaviours (e.g., physical activity) on motor performance ability. Physical activity sessions, classroom activities, environmental changes and tools for parents were the components of the 1-year intervention. The intervention and control were cluster-randomised, and children’s anthropometry and two motor test items (jumping from side to side, JSS and standing long jump, SLJ) were assessed. A total of 1293 (4.6 ± 0.69 years; 52% boys) from 45 kindergartens in Germany were included (intervention, n = 863; control, n = 430). The effect was assessed using generalised estimating equation. The intervention group showed a better improvement in JSS (Estimate 2.19 jumps, P = 0.01) and tended to improve better in SLJ (Estimate 2.73 cm, P = 0.08). The intervention was more effective in boys with respect to SLJ (P of interaction effect = 0.01). Children aged <4.5 years did not show a significant benefit while older children improved (JSS, Estimate 3.38 jumps, P = 0.004; SLJ, Estimate 4.18 cm, P = 0.04). Children with low socio-economic status improved in JSS (Estimate 5.98 jumps, P = 0.0001). The ToyBox-intervention offers an effective strategy to improve specific components of motor performance ability in early childhood. Future programmes should consider additional strategies specifically targeting girls and younger aged children.

Abbreviations: BMI: body mass index; SES: socio-economic status; JSS: jumping from side to side; SLJ: standing long jump; SD: standard deviation; GEE: generalised estimating equation     

Motor Performance of Girls Age 6 to 14 Years

Group achievement scores for elementary school girls for the 30-yard run, the standing broad jump and the overarm throw are presented to add to the limited information now available on children in the first three grades (ages 6 through 9 years). Means and standard deviations are reported for grades 1 through 8 and for ages 6 through 14 years. Reliabilities of within-day scores are reported. Correlations of year-to-year scores and of first-grade scores with those of grades 3 through 5 show that individuals tend to remain in the same relative position within the group during the elementary school years. This paper adds to present knowledge of motor performance of elementary school children by reporting observations derived from achievement scores of girls during a five-year period.