组块练习和随机练习对运动技能学习的影响:效果、机制与启示

以固定训练程序进行练习的组块练习（低情境干预）和以随机训练程序进行练习的随机练习（高情境干预）对运动技能学习有重要的影响。运用元分析方法探讨两种练习方式对不同结局指标、不同学习阶段和不同参与肌肉群运动技能学习效果的影响、机制和启示,旨在丰富运动技能学习理论,为提高组块练习和随机练习在体育教学训练实践运用的有效性提供参考依据。研究表明：（1）组块练习和随机练习对不同结局指标、不同练习阶段和不同参与肌肉群的运动技能学习效果不同;（2）从不同结局指标来看,组块练习对动作时间和测量距离类指标的运动技能学习更有效,而随机练习对完成得分和动作速度类效果更佳。（3）从不同学习阶段看,在学习掌握阶段组块练习效果好;在迁移阶段随机练习效果好;而在保持阶段,两种练习方式对不同结局指标运动技能效果各有优势。（4）从不同参与肌肉群的技能看,随机练习对粗大运动技能和精细运动技能学习效果均好于组块练习。     

分散练习和集中练习对运动技能学习效果影响的研究

运用元分析方法对符合研究需要的SCI和SSCI公开发表英文文献的研究结果进行统计分析,探讨分散练习和集中练习对运动技能学习的影响,及其对不同肌肉参与运动的技能类型和不同练习分布方式的影响,旨在丰富运动技能学习的相关理论,为练习分布在运动技能学习中的运用提供参考,进而提高学生运动技能学习的有效性。研究表明:(1)分散练习对运动技能学习产生的整体效果优于集中练习;(2)在运动技能掌握和保持阶段,分散练习对不同肌肉参与类型运动技能的掌握和保持均有较好效果;(3)不同练习的分布方式对运动技能的掌握均亦有较好效果,但是在保持阶段,练习间隔的学习效果优于单元间隔。     

变异练习与特异练习对不同性质网球运动技能学习的影响——从开放性和闭锁性运动技能的角度

采用教学实验法,探讨变异练习法和特异练习法对不同水平的网球技能学习者学习开放性和闭锁性网球技能效果的影响。网球技术等级为3.0和4.0的受试者被随机分入开放性和闭锁性技能任务组,再分别将两个组中的两个技术等级的受试者随机分为变异性练习组和特异性练习组。以击球准确性和动作技评为测试指标,对受试者进行技能的绩效测试。结果显示:在学习开放性和闭锁性运动技能时,3.0技术等级受试者变异练习组击球技评成绩好于特异练习组,4.0技术等级受试者变异练习组击球准确性好于特异练习组,其他各组间成绩差异不存在显著性。     

大强度的无氧间歇练习、有氧耐力练习及其组合练习的次序对恢复期心脏自主神经功能的影响

目的：评估大强度的无氧间歇练习、有氧耐力练习及其组合练习的次序对恢复期心脏自主神经功能的影响。方法：采用随机交互设计，15名健康男性受试者分别完成4次运动：600 m间歇跑练习、30 min大强度持续跑练习、600 m间歇跑加30 min大强度持续跑练习，30 min大强度持续跑加600 m间歇跑练习，分别在运动前（0~10 min）、整个运动期间和运动后恢复期（0~20 min）记录RR间期，并进行相应HRV分析以及在运动前和运动后即刻进行血乳酸测试。结果：与安静状态相比，运动中HR、EPOC和TRIMP均显著增加，但组合练习次序间不存在显著差异；恢复期20 min内，HR随恢复时间增加逐渐降低，但同一恢复阶段不同运动方案之间无显著差异；RMSSD、SDNN、SDNN/HR、HF和LF变化相似，在整个恢复阶段均显著低于安静值，但HF和LF在恢复期（15~20 min）显著增加；而LF/HF随着恢复时间延长显著增加。结论：大强度的无氧间歇练习、持续有氧练习及其组合练习，在运动后早期恢复阶段（0~20 min）HRV变化趋于一致，提示耐力运动后心脏自主神经功能的调整可能不具有运动形式依赖性。此外，大强度无氧间歇和有氧耐力练习的组合练习次序不影响运动后恢复期心脏自主功能的调节，恢复期20 min内，交感活性仍处于较高水平。     

练习变异性在运动技能学习中的研究进展

练习变异性与一般动作程序的参数变化有关,是通过改变运动参数及不同的背景干扰效应对练习效果产生影响,相对比于以往的固定练习法,变换练习法能够使参与者在练习运动技能过程中因环境、速度、距离、力量等参数的不同,从而体验到不同的运动特征,有效地促进运动技能的学习。现就近10年的研究成果进行综述,希望为今后的研究带来裨益。     

关于初学阶段投蓝练习难度负荷的研究

练习过程中的技能难度负荷是影响运动技能学习效果的重要方面。本文运用运动技能难度负荷的理论，采用实验测试和对所得数据进行统计分析的方法，对影响投篮练习难度负荷的各相关因素进行了分析，提出了不同情况下符合适宜技能难度要求的投篮练习点和练习要求。     

任务性质、观察学习和身体练习比例对运动技能学习的影响

观察使用计算机追踪任务探讨任务性质、观察学习和身体练习比例对运动技能学习的影响。72名受试划分为开放性任务学习组和封闭性任务学习组,然后再根据观察学习+身体练习比例将受试随机分为25%观察学习+75%身体练习组、50%观察学习+50%身体练习组、以及75%观察学习+25%身体练习组,进行为期3 d的计算机追踪任务学习。第3 d学习结束后,对所有受试进行即刻测试2、4 h后保持测试和迁移测试。结果显示:对于封闭性任务技能学习而言,50%观察学习+50%身体练习的比例所获得的学习效果好于25%观察学习+75%身体练习的比例和75%观察学习+25%身体练习的比例;对于开放性任务技能学习而言,25%观察学习+75%身体练习的比例所获得的学习效果好于75%观察学习+25%身体练习的比例;使用相同比例条件下,封闭性任务技能的学习效果好于开放性任务技能。     

不同观察学习和身体练习比例对不同年龄者追踪任务技能学习效果的影响

探讨不同的观察学习和身体练习比例对不同年龄者追踪任务技能学习的影响.将受试(小学生、高中生、大学生各36名)随机分为25%观察学习+75%身体练习组、50%观察学习+50%身体练习组、75%观察学习+25%身体练习组,进行为期3天的计算机追踪任务学习.第3天学习结束后,对所有受试进行了即刻测试、24 h后保持测试和迁移测试.结果显示:1)高中生和大学生使用50%观察学习+50%身体练习的比例所获得的追踪任务技能学习效果好于25%观察学习+75%身体练习的比例和75%观察学习+25%身体练习的比例;2)小学生使用25%观察学习+75%身体练习的比例所获得的追踪任务技能学习效果好于50%观察学习+50%身体练习的比例和75%观察学习+25%身体练习的比例;3)在同一种观察学习和身体练习比例条件下,高中生和大学生追踪任务技能学习效果相同,但都好于小学生.     

髋关节力量练习中巧用跨栏架

髋关节是人体运动的重要部分，是躯干与下肢肌肉群的附着点，髋关节力量直接影响运动技术和运动成绩。笔者结合多年来训练体育高考生和学校高水平运动员的经验，在髋关节力量练习中，于用跨栏架。这样不仅提高了运动员对练习的兴趣，而且有效地提高了运动成绩，具体方法如下。     

“程序化等速率练习”在乒乓球教学中的运用

本文运用资料法和实验法进行论证等,从运动生理学角度、心理学角度和运动技能学的角度对乒乓球技术动作学习状况进行分析,结合以往的教学经验把书本知识感性化和把教学中的经验性知识理性化的前提下,针对乒乓球运动技术学习的初级阶段,提出了程序化等速率练习的练习方式。研究结果表明：程序化的等速率练习能更加有效地提高学习者的学习效果,能加快乒乓球基本技术动作的形成。     

Systematically increasing contextual interference is beneficial for learning sport skills

Abstract

To better understand the contextual interference effect, in two experiments we investigated a form of practice schedule that provided novices with systematic increases in contextual interference. This new type of practice schedule was compared with traditional blocked and random scheduling for two types of sports skills. In Experiment 1, we tested the hypothesis that practising variations of the same task with systematic increases in contextual interference would lead to superior performance compared with blocked or random scheduling. Participants practised golf putting tasks following a blocked, random or increasing schedule, which involved initial blocked trials, followed by serial practice trials, and ended with random scheduling. Participants who followed the increasing schedule had superior retention test performance. In Experiment 2, we tested if these learning benefits were observed when learning tasks controlled by different generalized motor programs. Participants practised three different basketball passes (chest, overhead, single arm) in a blocked, random or increasing schedule. Participants practising with gradual increases in contextual interference performed better on retention and transfer tests than participants practising with blocked or random scheduling. The results of these two experiments indicate that a practice schedule offering systematic increases in contextual interference facilitates skill learning.     

The effect of consistent and varied follow-through practice schedules on learning a table tennis backhand

In table tennis the follow-through action after a shot is an important part of skill execution. In this experiment, we aimed to extend literature around the contextual interference effect by investigating whether the way the follow-through is organised in practice affects learning of the backhand shot in table tennis. Thirty unskilled participants were allocated to blocked-variable practice, random-variable practice or a control-constant group and aimed backhand shots towards a target following ball projection from a machine. Each group completed these shots in a pre-test, a training phase with follow-through manipulations, a post-test, and a retention test. The random-variable group improved their shot accuracy from pre-test to post-test and from pre-test to retention test (both P < 0.01, d = 1.03), whereas neither the blocked-variable nor the control-constant group displayed any change in shot accuracy. Practising the follow-through in a random-variable fashion enhanced learning of the preceding shot compared with blocked-variable practice or no follow-through instructions. The benefits of learning motor skills under conditions of high contextual interference also apply to how follow-through actions are organised. The findings are valuable to coaches and suggest that instructions related to the follow-through action should be considered as well as the primary skill itself.     

Applying contextual interference to the Pawlata roll

Contextual interference is manipulated by changing the practice order of a number of similar motor tasks, so that the learning context of each interferes with that of the other. The effect has been found to generalize to baseball batting, badminton serving and volleyball skills. The present study examined whether this practice technique could be applied to a Pawlata roll in a kayak. The study was further motivated by the fact that many instructors in Britain currently advocate learning the Pawlata roll in one direction only to a criterion of accuracy, thereafter transferring to the opposite direction. Contextual interference literature predicts that skill retention would be better served by practising on alternate sides. Accordingly, 16 undergraduate students with no kayaking experience were randomly allocated to either a low contextual interference group, which followed U'ren's (1993) recommendations, or a high contextual interference group, which practised the skill on alternate sides. The high contextual interference group took less time to acquire the skill, and were also quicker to achieve successful performance in retention (full roll) and transfer (half roll) tests, regardless of the direction of the roll, 1 week later. The time savings in practice were not expected, as acquisition under high contextual interference was improved rather than impaired. This finding suggests that bilateral transfer was increased by randomizing practice. These results are worthy of further investigation, in that they suggest that the recommended training methods may not be optimal.     

Contextual Interference Effects in Learning Three Badminton Serves

Abstract

This study investigated the generalizability of results of contextual interference effects by extending previous laboratory research to a field setting. Thirty female subjects (N = 30) learned three badminton serves in either a blocked (low interference), serial (mixed interference), or random (high interference) practice schedule. The subjects practiced the serves three days a week for three weeks. On the day following the completion of practice the subjects were given a retention and transfer test. Results replicated previous findings of contextual interference research by showing a significant group by block interaction between acquisition trials, retention, and transfer. The random group performed better on both retention and transfer than the blocked group. The significant trial block by contextual interference interaction also supports the generalizability of contextual interference effects, as posited by Shea and Morgan (1979), to the teaching of motor skills.     

金泰尔动作技能分类法视角下排球专项技能特征与训练策略

金泰尔技能分类法是运动技能学习的重要理论,该分类方法从运动环境和动作功能两个维度四个方面来分析运动技能,并认为人体的运动技能均可在十六个类型中找到。本研究以金泰尔技能分类法的两个维度四个方面为切入点来阐述排球高水平技术的表现,从提高个人技能水平的角度出发,提出训练策略,以期能为排球技术教学与训练提供一定参考。     

Accuracy of a Perspective Control Lens

Abstract

The contextual interference (CI) effect has been replicated many times since its first demonstration by Shea and Morgan (1979) in the motor learning domain (see Brady, 1998; Magill&;Hall, 1990). The CI effect is characterized by the observation that experiencing greater interference during acquisition is detrimental to immediate performance but enhances delayed performance as measured on retention or transfer tests. High CI is most often created by random practice in which the learning of multiple tasks occurs in a single training. In contrast, low CI is frequently created by using a blocked practice format in which all the practice trials of one task are completed before another task is introduced. One theoretical account that has been forwarded to account for the CI effect is labeled the action plan reconstruction hypothesis (Lee&;Magill, 1983, 1985). This position intimates that before a movement occurs an “action plan” must be prepared. In blocked practice, a previously prepared “action plan” is readily available from trial to trial, but it suffers from lack of attention on trials following initial retrieval from working memory. In random practice, however, each time a task must be executed a “reconstruction” of the action plan must be processed, because the interchange of information from trial to trial never allows the same information to remain in working memory for an extended amount of time. Presumably, the additional trial-to-trial preparation used by the random practice participant during practice results in a more resilient memory representation that better supports long-term recall efforts compared to their blocked practice counterparts.     

Perceptual-cognitive skill training and its transfer to expert performance in the field: Future research directions

Abstract

Perceptual-cognitive skills training provides a potentially valuable method for training athletes on key skills, such as anticipation and decision-making. It can be used when athletes are unable to physically train or are unable to experience repeated key situations from their sport. In this article, we review research on perceptual-cognitive skills training and describe future research areas focusing on a number of key theories and principles. The main aim of any training intervention should be the efficacy of retention and transfer of learning from training to field situations, which should be the key consideration when designing the representative tasks used in perceptual-cognitive skills training. We review the principles that seek to create practice tasks that replicate those found in the field, so as to increase the amount of transfer that occurs. These principles are perception–action coupling, the contextual interference effect and contextual information, which suggest there should be a high level of similarity between training and real-life performance when designing perceptual-cognitive skills training. In the final section, we discuss the transfer of retained skill acquisition from perceptual-cognitive skills training to field performance, which we suggest to be the key area for future research in this area.     

The Effect of Self-Regulated and Experimenter-Imposed Practice Schedules on Motor Learning for Tasks of Varying Difficulty

Research suggests that allowing individuals to control their own practice schedule has a positive effect on motor learning. In this experiment we examined the effect of task difficulty and self-regulated practice strategies on motor learning. The task was to move a mouse-operated cursor through pattern arrays that differed in two levels of difficulty. Participants learned either four easy or hard patterns after assignment to one of four groups that ordered practice in blocked, random, self-regulated, and yoked-to-self-regulated schedules. Although self-regulation provided no special benefit in acquisition, these groups showed the most improved performance in retention, irrespective of task difficulty. Although individual switch strategies for members of the self-regulated groups were quite variable, the impact of self-regulation on motor learning remained similar. These findings add to the growing body of literature suggesting that self-regulated practice is an important variable for motor learning.     

Training and contextual interference effects on memory and transfer

An experimental intervention program to train subjects on coincidence anticipation and prediction skills was administered to novice females. An attempt was undertaken to study the effects of this sports training and training on laboratory tasks. According to Battig's predictions on the structure of practice sessions, both random and blocked contexts were presented. These acquisition contexts were viewed as orienting tasks that preceded sports training. The effects of high-contextual interference and sports training on acquisition, retention, and transfer were investigated. Practice conditions in the intervention were selected because of processing demands similar to random acquisition. Other research has shown that acquisition in random is influenced by sport-skill expertise and further indicates that processing of events occurring outside the laboratory influences performance of laboratory tasks. Observed results supported prior theoretical predictions and empirical findings on contextual interference. Predicted hypotheses were supported, and the effects of sports training were most profound during retention and transfer if the acquisition context for the trained subjects was random. Supported by prior research, activities performed outside the laboratory influenced performance on laboratory tasks. These results shift more emphasis on the learner as an active processor of information, which relates to Lee's (1988) views on transfer-appropriate processing.