Motivational predictors of prosocial and antisocial behaviour in football

Abstract

This study examined (a) the main and interactive effects of goal orientations and perceived motivational climate on prosocial and antisocial behaviour, and (b) whether number of seasons one has played for the team interacts with motivational climate in predicting prosocial and antisocial behaviour in association football. Participants were 325 male association football players, whose age ranged from 12 to 17 years. Athletes completed questionnaires measuring frequency of prosocial and antisocial behaviours in football, goal orientation, motivational climate and social desirability, and indicated the number of seasons they had played for their current team. Regression analyses revealed that task orientation and mastery climate were positive predictors of prosocial behaviour, whereas ego orientation and performance climate were positive predictors of antisocial behaviour. In addition, task orientation negatively predicted antisocial behaviour, while ego orientation negatively predicted prosocial behaviour. No significant interactions between task and ego orientation and mastery and performance motivational climate were found. Finally, mastery climate negatively predicted antisocial behaviour for those who had played many seasons for the team. In conclusion, strengthening task orientation and mastery climate and weakening ego orientation may enhance prosocial behaviour. However, for antisocial conduct to be eliminated from the context of association football, ego orientation and performance climate need to be tempered, as these constructs exert unique independent effects on antisocial behaviour.     

Emotion regulation and motor performance: an integrated review and proposal of the Temporal Influence Model of Emotion Regulation (TIMER)

ABSTRACT

Adaptive regulation of emotions is imperative for successful sport performance. However, the lion’s share of mainstream emotion regulation (ER) literature is founded on perspectives prioritising mental health, not performance. Consequently, ER strategies are predominantly classified as adaptive or maladaptive based on effectiveness in achieving targeted mental health outcomes. These conventional mental health classifications can catalyse misapplication of ER strategies within sport and other motor performance contexts when (1) ER motives are instrumentally directed towards performance enhancement and (2) Minimal consideration is given to the consequences of ER on the coordination and execution of motor actions. Herein, we review the current state of relevant ER research within and outside of sport contexts. We also present a novel conceptual framework, the Temporal Influence Model of Emotion Regulation (TIMER). TIMER proposes that ER strategies exert distinct, temporally dependent demands upon perceptual-cognitive and motoric resources. These unique regulatory profiles influence subsequent motor performance outcomes. Critically, the degree to which regulatory strategies are appropriate or ideal varies given environmental constraints along with performers’ affective and performance goals. The model includes testable hypotheses to guide theoretical and applied research in the domain of ER within sport and other motor performance contexts.     

The dual nature of perfectionism in sports: relationships with emotion,motivation, and performance

Perfectionism is a prevalent characteristic in athletes. Yet some researchers have argued that perfectionism in sports is maladaptive because it undermines athletes’ performance and stifles athletic development. This argument, however, neglects that perfectionism is a multidimensional characteristic and that only some dimensions of perfectionism are clearly maladaptive, whereas others are not. This review argues that perfectionism is comprised of two main dimensions – perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006) – that show different and unique patterns of relationships with athletes’ emotions, motivation, and performance. In support of this argument the review will present findings indicating that only perfectionistic concerns show unique positive relationships with competitive anxiety, fear of failure, and avoidance goal orientations. In contrast, perfectionistic strivings show unique positive relationships with self-confidence, hope of success, approach goal orientations, and performance in training and competitions. The findings suggest that only perfectionistic concerns are clearly maladaptive, whereas perfectionistic strivings may form part of a healthy striving for excellence. Implications for applied sport psychology are discussed as are open questions for future research.     

运动认知、情绪与竞技水平的关系性研究

为了明确运动认知、情绪及竞技水平的关系,通过问卷调查、文献资料和数理统计等方法,对79名国家现役优秀跆拳道运动员进行了调查研究。结果表明:运动认知和情绪对运动员的竞技水平存在显著的直接效应,且具有典型的预测效应,其中,运动认知对竞技水平还存在显著的间接性影响(0.241),情绪成为一个重要的调节变量。同时,在对运动认知和情绪对竞技水平的各路径分析中,仅社会期待焦虑未呈现显著性,其他各维度均表现出显著性的作用。为此,建议重视竞技运动中运动认知和情绪的作用及其两者之间的关系,将认知和情绪作为运动员竞技水平的重要预测和控制变量。     

Positive emotion in sport performance: current status and future directions

Emotions have firmly established their place in sport psychology research over the past 40 years. For many decades following World War II, mainstream psychology researchers placed negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) ahead of positive emotions (e.g., happiness) but positive emotions are now a genuine, promising field of research because of their influence on specific components of performance (e.g., attention) and psychological well-being. The benefits of these emotions have hitherto not been wholly realized in a sport context, especially in their capacity to generate greater self-efficacy, motivation, attention, problem-solving, and coping with adversity. Although the sport emotion literature is sprinkled with studies that specifically examined positive emotion in sport settings, the breadth and depth of this research is too thin to make bold claims about the value of positive emotions in the emotion-performance relation. There are, however, at least three theoretical models available to sport psychologists to better understand the influence of positive emotions on sport performance and two of these models are specifically designed for sport contexts. Not only can these models deepen and widen this knowledge base, but they can also support interventions in applied settings to improve performance and psychological well-being.     

The influence of gate start position on physical performance and anxiety perception in expert BMX athletes

The critical importance of the start phase in bicycle motocross (BMX) racing is increasingly acknowledged. Past experiments underlined that the internal lane of the starting gate provides a strong positional advantage. However, how lane position affects start performance and cognitive and somatic state anxiety remains unexplored. We examined the start performance and anxiety responses of youth national-level BMX riders in both experimental and ecological contexts. We used contextualization motor imagery routines to evaluate start performance and state anxiety from the internal and external lanes. Cycle ergometer measures revealed a better start performance from the external lane, but we did not record any lane effect on actual gate start times. Both somatic and cognitive anxiety scores were higher before racing from the internal compared to the external lane. Finally, state anxiety (i.e., somatic anxiety, worry and concentration disruptions) negatively predicted the start performance. Present findings provide original insights on psychological factors involved in BMX start performance, and might contribute to fruitful coping interventions and training programmes in sports overlapping the framework of “handicap races” taking the specific form of positional advantages/disadvantages at the start (e.g., ski/snowboard cross, athletics, swimming, motorsports, etc.).     

The influence of match location,quality of opposition,and match status on technical performance in professional association football

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of match location, quality of opposition, and match status on the technical aspects of performance within a single professional British football team. Forty matches from the 2002–2003 and 2003–2004 domestic league seasons were notated post-event using a computerized notational analysis system with 13 on-the-ball behaviours and corresponding outcomes (successful or unsuccessful) assessed. Log-linear modelling procedures indicated that the incidences of all on-the-ball technical behaviours, with the exception of “set-pieces”, were influenced by at least one of the three situation variables, with both independent and interactive effects found. In contrast, logit modelling suggested that there was no general influence of the situation variables on the outcomes of the on-the-ball behaviours. The findings emphasize the need for notational analysts and coaches to consider the potential independent and interactive effects of match location, quality of opposition, and match status when assessing the technical components of football performance, particularly those relating to behaviour occurrence. Future research should consider the effects of additional situation variables purported to influence the mental, physical, technical, and tactical components of football performance.     

自动情绪调节对男子足球运动员愤怒和竞赛攻击行为的影响

自动情绪调节是指个体不需意识努力、注意分配和有意控制在阈下知觉中自动有效地调节情绪。自动情绪调节强有力地影响着个体的情绪和行为反应,在日常生活中普遍存在却较少受到关注。研究采用内隐联结测验和问卷调查方法探讨自动情绪调节对男子足球运动员愤怒和竞赛攻击行为的影响。结果发现自动情绪调节可以显著地抑制男子足球运动员的愤怒情绪和攻击性行为。建议教练员要注重培养运动员的自动情绪调节能力,以便于运动员能自动抑制竞赛中负性刺激事件所引发的负性情绪,从而自动避免发生攻击行为。     

Hydration kinetics and 10-km outdoor running performance following 75% versus 150% between bout fluid replacement

Abstract

Current American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) guidelines recommend replacing 150% of sweat losses between training bouts separated by ≤12 hours, but little evidence exists concerning the implications of this strategy for runners. Participants (n = 13) in this study replaced 75% (1637 ± 372 mL) or 150% (3099 ± 850 mL) of sweat losses following an outdoor evening run (～75 minutes; Wet-bulb-globe temperature (WBGT) = ～27°C) and consumed a standardised evening meal and breakfast before completing an outdoor (WBGT = ～23°C) 10-km time-trial the following morning. Urine was collected between runs and urine specific gravity (USG) was assessed pre-run. Significant differences were found in pre-run body mass (75% = 69.6 ± 9.2; 150% = 70.1 ± 9.3 kg; P = 0.02) and USG (75% = 1.026 ± 0.005; 150% = 1.014 ± 0.007; P < 0.001). Heart rate during 10-km run (168 ± 14 versus 168 ± 12 beats min^?1) and post-run intestinal temperature (39.08 ± 0.52 versus 39.00 ± 0.70 °C) did not differ for 75% and 150%, respectively, despite an ～3% performance improvement (75% = 47.28 ± 6.64; 150% = 45.93 ± 6.04 minutes; P = 0.001) due to a faster pace in the second half of the run with 150% replacement. Session rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was lower (P = 0.02) during 150% (7.5 ± 1.3) versus 75% (8.4 ± 0.9). Reluctant drinkers potentially hinder training quality between evening and morning runs in the heat, but copious urine production and difficulty in consuming recommended fluid volumes suggest fluid replacement <150% may be more ideal.     

Effects of weightlifting exercise,traditional resistance and plyometric training on countermovement jump performance: a meta-analysis

Jump performance is considered an important factor in many sports. Thus, strategies such as weightlifting (WL) exercises, traditional resistance training (TRT) and plyometric training (PT) are effective at improving jump performance. However, it is not entirely clear which of these strategies can enable greater improvements on jump height. Thus, the purpose of the meta-analysis was to compare the improvements on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance between training methods which focus on WL exercises, TRT, and PT. Seven studies were included, of which one study performed both comparison. Therefore, four studies comparing WL exercises vs. TRT (total n = 78) and four studies comparing WL exercises vs. PT (total n = 76). The results showed greater improvements on CMJ performance for WL exercises compared to TRT (ES_diff: 0.72 ± 0.23; _95%CI: 0.26, 1.19; P = 0.002; Δ % = 7.5 and 2.1, respectively). The comparison between WL exercises vs. PT revealed no significant difference between protocols (ES_diff: 0.15 ± 0.23; _95%CI: ?0.30, 0.60; P = 0.518; Δ % = 8.8 and 8.1, respectively). In conclusion, WL exercises are superior to promote positive changes on CMJ performance compared to TRT; however, WL exercises and PT are equally effective at improving CMJ performance.     

Tactical behaviour of winning athletes in major championship 1500-m and 5000-m track finals

This article analyses the tactics employed by middle-distance (1500-m) and long-distance (5000-m) runners from an observational methodology perspective. The subject of investigation has received little attention from specialists in the field of athletics, with most research focusing on physiological studies of athlete performance. Using an ad hoc observation tool and a database containing systematically recorded data we detected time patterns (T-patterns) within the data recorded using the Theme software program (version 5.0), and analysed the tactics employed by winners of the men's 1500-m and 5000-m finals of the World Championships in Athletics [Edmonton 2001, Paris 2003, Helsinki 2005 (1500-m final only), Osaka 2007 (1500-m final only), Berlin 2009 and Daegu 2011], the European Athletics Championships (Munich 2002, Göteborg 2006, and Barcelona 2010) and the Olympic Games (Sydney 2000, Athens 2004, Beijing 2008 and London 2012). T-pattern detection and investigation of the relationship between category systems corresponding to the criteria comprising the observation tool revealed both similarities (starting lane and lane used during race, runner's position during race and sprint zone and lane) and differences (variations in pace, zones in which changes of pace occur, sprint initiation zone and winner's position at the start of the sprint) between the two disciplines.     

Effects of dietary antioxidants on training and performance in female runners

Abstract

Exercise-induced oxidative stress is implicated in muscle damage and fatigue which has led athletes to embark on antioxidant supplementation regimes to negate these effects. This study investigated the intake of vitamin C (VC) (1 g), blackcurrant (BC) juice (15 mg VC, 300 mg anthocyanins) and placebo in isocaloric drink form on training progression, incremental running test and 5-km time-trial performance. Twenty-three trained female runners (age, 31±8 y; mean±SD) completed three blocks of high-intensity training for 3 wks and 3 days, separated by a washout (~3.7 wks). Changes in training and performance with each treatment were analysed with a mixed linear model, adjusting for performance at the beginning of each training block. Markers of oxidative status included protein carbonyl, malondialdehyde (in plasma and in vitro erythrocytes), ascorbic acid, uric acid and erythrocyte enzyme activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase were analysed. There was a likely harmful effect on mean running speed during training when taking VC (1.3%; 90% confidence limits ±1.3%). Effects of the two treatments relative to placebo on mean performance in the incremental test and time trial were unclear, but runners faster by 1 SD of peak speed demonstrated a possible improvement on peak running speed with BC juice (1.9%; ±2.5%). Following VC, certain oxidative markers were elevated: catalase at rest (23%; ±21%), protein carbonyls at rest (27%; ±38%) and superoxide dismutase post-exercise (8.3%; ±9.3%). In conclusion, athletes should be cautioned about taking VC chronically, however, BC may improve performance in the elite.     

Effects of increased participation on veteran running performance

Contrary to elite performance that is approaching an asymptote, recent analyses suggested a trend for improvement in veterans. This might be attributable to a disproportionate increase in older age-group participation. We extracted 26 years (1987–2012) of men’s results of a running event in Switzerland, “La Course de l’Escalade” (7.25 km). We investigated trends in performance by five-year age-groups, taking the 10, 20, 30, and 50 fastest in each group, and then the 1^st, 5^th, and 10^th percentiles. Taking the 10, 20, 30 or 50 fastest runners there was a trend for improvement ranging from 0.07 to 0.22 min·year^?1 (p < .0001; 95% CI ?0.083 to ?0.049 and p < .0001; 95% CI ?0.250 to ?0.196 respectively) in the elder age-groups. Taking the 1^st, 5^th, and 10^th percentiles there were no trends for improvement, and actual deteriorations up to 0.13 (p < .0001; 95% CI +0.119 to +0.138) min·year^?1. Mixed-effect models with repeated measures for runners, confirmed a global deteriorating trend with an estimate of +0.11 min·year^?1 (p < .0001; 95% CI +0.107 to +0.116). The results suggest that increases in performance in older runners arise from modifications of sampling from a growing population.     

Effects of strength training on physical fitness and sport-specific performance in recreational,sub-elite,and elite rowers: A systematic review with meta-analysis

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to examine the effects of strength training (ST) on selected components of physical fitness (e.g., lower/upper limb maximal strength, muscular endurance, jump performance, cardiorespiratory endurance) and sport-specific performance in rowers. Only studies with an active control group were included if they examined the effects of ST on at least one proxy of physical fitness and/or sport-specific performance in rowers. Weighted and averaged standardized mean differences (SMD) were calculated using random-effects models. Subgroup analyses were computed to identify effects of ST type or expertise level on sport-specific performance. Our analyses revealed significant small effects of ST on lower limb maximal strength (SMD = 0.42, p = 0.05) and on sport-specific performance (SMD = 0.32, p = 0.05). Non-significant effects were found for upper limb maximal strength, upper/lower limb muscular endurance, jump performance, and cardiorespiratory endurance. Subgroup analyses for ST type and expertise level showed non-significant differences between the respective subgroups of rowers (p ≥ 0.32). Our systematic review with meta-analysis indicated that ST is an effective means for improving lower limb maximal strength and sport-specific performance in rowers. However, ST-induced effects are neither modulated by ST type nor rowers’ expertise level.     

Mediating effects of motor performance,cardiorespiratory fitness,physical activity,and sedentary behaviour on the associations of adiposity and other cardiometabolic risk factors with academic achievement in children

We investigated the associations of cardiometabolic risk factors with academic achievement and whether motor performance, cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity, or sedentary behaviour mediated these associations. Altogether 175 children 6–8 years-of-age participated in the study. We assessed body fat percentage (BF%), waist circumference, insulin, glucose, triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure, leptin, alanine aminotransferase, and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT). Reading fluency, reading comprehension, and arithmetic skills were assessed using standardized tests. Speed/agility, balance, and manual dexterity test results were used to calculate motor performance score and physical activity was assessed by combined heart rate and movement sensor and cardiorespiratory fitness by maximal cycle ergometer test. In boys, BF% was inversely associated with reading fluency (β = ?0.262, P = 0.007) and reading comprehension (β = ?0.216, P = 0.025). Motor performance mediated these associations. Leptin was inversely related to reading fluency (β = ?0.272, P = 0.006) and reading comprehension (β = ?0.287, P = 0.003). The inverse association of leptin with reading fluency was mediated by motor performance. In girls, GGT was inversely associated with reading fluency independent of confounders (β = ?0.325, P = 0.007). The inverse association of BF% with academic achievement among boys was largely explained by motor performance. Leptin in boys and GGT in girls were inversely associated with academic achievement independent of confounding factors.     

Exercise promotion: An integration of exercise self-identity,beliefs, intention,and behaviour

Abstract

We explored the role of exercise self-identity within the framework of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). Participants were 538 undergraduate students who completed measures of exercise self-identity, exercise behaviour, TPB items, and behavioural and control beliefs. Regression analysis showed that self-identity was the second strongest predictor of exercise behaviour and interacted with exercise intention. Follow-up analysis showed that the intention–exercise relationship was more than three times stronger at high than at low levels of exercise self-identity. Results also showed that only a marginal part of the sample with strong exercise identities had a weak exercise intention, whereas a large part of the sample with a strong exercise intention also reported a strong exercise identity. Nevertheless, only a quarter of the sample that reported strong exercise identity and intention were sufficiently active. The results underline the notion that exercise self-identity may be a useful component for the theory of planned behaviour.     

Effects of focus of attention on baseball batting performance in players of differing skill levels

This study addressed the question, what should baseball players focus their attention on while batting? Less-skilled and highly skilled (college) baseball players participated in four dual-task conditions in a baseball batting simulation: two that directed attention to skill execution (skill/internal [movement of the hands] and skill/external [movement of the bat]) and two that directed attention to the environment (environmental/irrelevant [auditory tones] and environmental/external [the ball leaving the bat]). Batting performance for highly skilled players was best in the environmental/external condition and worst in the skill/internal condition. Performance of less-skilled batters was significantly better in the two skill conditions than in either of the two environmental conditions. We conclude that the optimal focus of attention for highly skilled batters is one that does not disrupt proceduralized knowledge and permits attention to the perceptual effect of the action, whereas the optimal focus of attention for less-skilled batters is one that allows attention to the step-by-step execution of the swing.     

Effects of caffeine on time trial performance in sedentary men

Abstract

It is not known if ergogenic effects of caffeine ingestion in athletic groups occur in the sedentary. To investigate this, we used a counterbalanced, double-blind, crossover design to examine the effects of caffeine ingestion (6 mg · kg^?1 body-mass) on exercise performance, substrate utilisation and perceived exertion during 30 minutes of self-paced stationary cycling in sedentary men. Participants performed two trials, one week apart, after ingestion of either caffeine or placebo one hour before exercise. Participants were instructed to cycle as quickly as they could during each trial. External work (J · kg^?1) after caffeine ingestion was greater than after placebo (P = 0.001, effect size [ES] = 0.3). Further, heart rate, oxygen uptake and energy expenditure during exercise were greater after caffeine ingestion (P = 0.031, ES = 0.4; P = 0.009, ES = 0.3 and P = 0.018, ES = 0.3; respectively), whereas ratings of perceived exertion and respiratory exchange ratio values did not differ between trials (P = 0.877, ES = 0.1; P = 0.760, ES = 0.1; respectively). The ability to do more exercise after caffeine ingestion, without an accompanying increase in effort sensation, could motivate sedentary men to participate in exercise more often and so reduce adverse effects of inactivity on health.     

膳食脂肪对运动能力的影响及运动时脂代谢的调节

就膳食脂肪对运动能力的影响以及脂肪代谢的调节作一综述。运动强度、时间不同，脂肪供能所占的比例不同，脂肪供能对运动成绩的影响也有所差异。运动时脂代谢的调节受多种因素的影响，激素敏感性甘油三酯脂肪酶(HSL)是酶解速度的主要控制因素。     

Effects of high-intensity resistance circuit-based training in hypoxia on body composition and strength performance

Abstract

Hypoxic training methods are increasingly being used by researchers in an attempt to improve performance in normoxic ambients. Moreover, previous research suggests that resistance training in hypoxia can cause physiological and muscle adaptations. The primary aim of this study was to compare the effects of 8 weeks of high-intensity resistance circuit-based (HRC) training in hypoxia on body composition and strength performance. The secondary aim was to examine the effects of HRC on metabolic parameters. Twenty-eight male participants were randomly assigned to either hypoxia (Fraction of inspired oxygen [F_IO₂]?=?15%; HRC_hyp: n?=?15; age: 24.6?±?6.8 years; height: 177.4?±?5.9?cm; weight: 74.9?±?11.5?kg) or normoxia [F_IO₂]?=?20.9%; HRC_norm: n?=?13; age: 23.2?±?5.2 years; height: 173.4?±?6.2?cm; weight: 69.4?±?7.4?kg) groups. Training sessions consisted of two blocks of three exercises (Block 1: bench press, leg extension and front pull down; Block 2: deadlift, elbow flexion and ankle extension). Each exercise was performed at six repetition maximum. Rest periods lasted for 35-s between exercises, 3-min between sets and 5-min between blocks. Participants exercised twice weekly for 8 weeks, and body composition, strength and blood tests were performed before and after the training program. Lean body mass and bone mineral density significantly increased over time in the HRC_hyp (p?<?.005; ES?=?0.14 and p?<?.014; ES?=?0.19, respectively) but not in the HRC_norm after training. Both groups improved their strength performance over time (p?<?.001), but without group effect differences. These results indicate that simulated hypoxia during HRC exercise produced trivial effects on lean body mass and bone mineral density compared to normoxia.