The Difficulty of Sit-Ups Tests: An Empirical Investigation

Abstract

This study estimated the difficulty of various sit-ups tests using an item response theory (IRT) model, the Rasch Poisson Counts model Scores were obtained on 18 sit-ups tests. All tests were thought to vary in difficulty based on clinical observations. Item difficulty was defined by the Poisson model as the difficulty of Step 1, where the difficulty of a step represented the difficulty of completing a sit-up. The difficulty values of the tests ranged from ?4.02 to ?3.57. The easiest test was executed with hands on thighs and feet anchored. Most tests had good fit values. The results demonstrated that a variety of sit-ups tests can provide a range of difficulties and variety in forming a sit-ups test bank.     

Physical fitness normative values for 6–18-year-old Greek boys and girls,using the empirical distribution and the lambda,mu, and sigma statistical method

The aim of the this study was to establish age- and gender-specific physical fitness normative values and to compare percentiles and Z scores values in a large, nationwide sample of Greek children aged 6–18 years. From March 2014 to May 2014, a total of 424,328 boys and girls aged 6–18 years who attended school in Greece were enrolled. The studied sample was representative, in terms of age–sex distribution and geographical region. Physical fitness tests (i.e. 20?m shuttle run test (SRT), standing long jump, sit and reach, sit-ups, and 10?×?5?m SRT) were performed and used to calculate normative values, using the percentiles of the empirical distributions and the lambda, mu, and sigma statistical method. Normative values were presented as tabulated percentiles for five health-related fitness tests based on a large data set comprising 424,328 test performances. Boys typically scored higher than girls on cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and speed/agility, but lower on flexibility (all p values <0.001). Older boys and girls had better performances than younger ones (p?相似文献   

Circuit Training Time Allotments in a Typical Physical Education Class Period

Abstract

As an attempt in determining the relative effectiveness of three time allotments to circuit training and active games in a typical physical education class period, treatment groups were assigned either a 5- and 25-minute, a 10- and 20-minute, or a 15- and 15-minute distribution of time. Pre- and post-measures were taken on six circuit exercises: leg-exchanges, squat-thrusts, sit-ups, bench-steps, push-ups, and pull-ups. Significant improvement was observed for all three groups on all exercise. The 15-minute allotment to circuit training resulted in significantly better performances on sit-ups and leg-exchanges than the 5-minute allotment, but in lower performance on bench-steps when compared to the 10-minute allotment.     

不同身体姿势与运动节奏对男子游泳选手腹直肌训练效果影响的肌电特征分析

对15名男子游泳选手腹直肌在仰卧起坐练习下肌电特征进行分析。研究结果表明:(1)无论是向心收缩过程,还是离心收缩过程,斜靠仰卧起坐姿势时,锻炼效果最好;(2)在仰卧起坐动作练习时,采用斜靠仰卧起坐动作且使用加速起(快起),减速落(慢落)的运动节奏,对腹直肌训练效果较好;(3)提出了练习仰卧起坐动作的动作要领。     

Adiposity,physical activity and neuromuscular performance in children

We investigated the associations of body fat percentage (BF%), objectively assessed moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and different types of physical activity assessed by a questionnaire with neuromuscular performance. The participants were 404 children aged 6–8 years. BF% was assessed using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and physical activity by combined heart rate and movement sensing and a questionnaire. The results of 50-m shuttle run, 15-m sprint run, hand grip strength, standing long jump, sit-up, modified flamingo balance, box-and-block and sit-and-reach tests were used as measures of neuromuscular performance. Children who had a combination of higher BF% and lower levels of physical activity had the poorest performance in 50-m shuttle run, 15-m sprint run and standing long jump tests. Higher BF% was associated with slower 50-m shuttle run and 15-m sprint times, shorter distance jumped in standing long jump test, fewer sit-ups, more errors in balance test and less cubes moved in box-and-block test. Higher levels of physical activity and particularly MVPA assessed objectively by combined accelerometer and heart rate monitor were related to shorter 50-m shuttle run and 15-m sprint times. In conclusion, higher BF% and lower levels of physical activity and particularly the combination of these two factors were associated with worse neuromuscular performance.     

Temporal trends in the sit-ups performance of 9,939,289 children and adolescents between 1964 and 2017

ABSTRACT

We estimated international/national temporal trends in sit-ups performance for children and adolescents, and examined relationships between national trends in sit-ups performance and national trends in health-related/sociodemographic indicators. Data were obtained by systematically searching studies reporting on temporal trends in sit-ups performance for apparently healthy 9–17 year-olds, and by examining nationally representative fitness datasets. Trends at the country-sex-age level were estimated by sample-weighted regression models relating the testing year to mean sit-ups performance. International/national trends were estimated by a post-stratified population-weighting procedure. Pearson’s correlations quantified relationships between national trends in sit-ups performance and national trends in health-related/sociodemographic indicators. A total of 9,939,289 children and adolescents from 31 countries/special administrative regions between 1964 and 2017 collectively showed a large improvement of 38.4% (95% CI: 36.8 to 40.0) or 7.1% per decade (95% CI: 6.8 to 7.4). Large international improvements were experienced by all age and sex groups, with the rate of improvement slowing from 1964 to 2000, stabilizing near zero until 2010, before declining. Trends differed between countries, with national trends in vigorous physical activity a strong, positive correlate of national trends in sit-ups performance. More sit-ups data are needed from low- and middle-income countries to better monitor trends in muscular fitness.     

The Influence of Weight Change on Physical Fitness from Childhood to Adolescence

The study aimed to explore how weight changes from childhood to adolescence influenced the performances of physical fitness. The participants (N = 115) were pre-tested when they were in kindergarten, first, or second grades (mean age = 7.25). The same participants were post-tested again after 6 years. The President’s Challenge test battery was used in the study. A repeated measure multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine the effects of time and body mass index (BMI) change on participants’ fitness performances. Results showed that participants who maintained normal weight made greater improvements in the performances of sit-ups, flexed-arm hang, and shuttle run tests than those who became or maintained overweight/obese weight status. Additionally, children who maintained normal weight were 6.21 times more likely to achieve healthy fitness zone (HFZ) standards for the 1-mile run post-test. The findings highlight the importance of maintaining normal body weight during elementary school years in achieving better physical fitness.     

Functional capacities and sport-specific skills of 14- to 15-year-old male basketball players: Size and maturity effects

Abstract

The aim of the study was to estimate the influence of body size and pubertal status on variation in functional capacities and sport-specific skills of 59 youth basketball players aged 14.0–15.9 years. Height and mass were measured and stage of pubic hair was assessed at clinical examination. Six tests of functional capacity were evaluated: squat jump, countermovement jump, 60-s sit-ups, 2-kg standing medicine ball throw, hand grip strength, and 20-m multi-stage shuttle run. Four basketball skills were tested (shooting, passing, dribbling, and defensive movements). Comparisons between basketball players of different sexual maturity status were performed using analysis of covariance (controlling for chronological age). Functional capacities and basketball skills appeared to be largely independent of pubertal status especially after controlling for variation in body size. Results of multiple linear regressions indicated chronological age as a significant predictor for four items, while maturity status was a significant predictor for only one item. The influence of body mass was negative for two functional indicators (jumping, multi-stage shuttle run) and two basketball skills (dribbling, defensive movements), but positive for two functional tests of upper body strength (hand grip, ball throw). Height was positively correlated with two specific skills (passing, defensive movements), while a combination of tallness and heaviness was associated with a disadvantage on three functional capacities and two sport-specific skills.     

The weighted walking test as an alternative method of assessing aerobic power

The aim of the present study was to determine maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) directly during uphill walking exercise and to compare these values with those achieved during running and cycling exercise. Forty untrained students (20 males and 20 females) took part in three exercise tests. The running test was performed on a horizontal treadmill and the speed was gradually increased by 0.3 m . s(-1) every 3 min. The walking test was conducted on a treadmill inclined at 12% (speed of 1.8 m . s(-1)). The load was further increased every 3 min by the addition of a mass of one-twentieth of the body mass of the participant (plastic containers filled with water and added to a backpack carried by the participant). During the bicycle ergometry test, the workload was increased by 20 W every 2 min. All tests were performed until volitional exhaustion. During all tests, oxygen uptake, minute ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory frequency, heart rate, hydrogen ion concentration, base excess, and blood lactate concentration were analysed. The Pearson correlation coefficients between the weighted walking test and the commonly applied running and bicycle ergometry tests indicate a strong association with the new test in evaluating maximal oxygen uptake. The negligible differences in VO2max between the three tests for the male participants (running: 61.0 ml . kg(-1) . min(-1); walking: 60.4 ml . kg(-1) . min(-1); cycling: 60.2 ml . kg(-1) . min(-1)), and the fact that the females achieved better results on the walking test than the cycle ergometer test (running: 45.0 ml . kg(-1) . min(-1); walking: 42.6 ml . kg(-1) . min(-1); cycling: 40.1 ml . kg(-1) . min(-1)), confirm the suitability of the new method for evaluating aerobic power. The weighted walking test could be useful in the assessment of aerobic power in individuals for whom running is not advised or is difficult. In addition, the new test allows for determination of VO2max on small treadmills with a limited speed regulator, such as those found in specialist physiotherapy and fitness centres.     

Prediction of maximal oxygen uptake in sedentary males from a perceptually regulated, sub-maximal graded exercise test

The purpose of this study was to assess the validity of predicting the maximal oxygen uptake (VO2(max)) of sedentary men from sub-maximal VO2 values obtained during a perceptually regulated exercise test. Thirteen healthy, sedentary males aged 29-52 years completed five graded exercise tests on a cycle ergometer. The first and fifth test involved a graded exercise test to determine VO2(max). The two maximal graded exercise tests were separated by three sub-maximal graded exercise tests, perceptually regulated at 3-min RPE intensities of 9, 11, 13, 15, and 17 on the Borg ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) scale, in that order. After confirmation that individual linear regression models provided the most appropriate fit to the data, the regression lines for the perceptual ranges 9-17, 9-15, and 11-17 were extrapolated to RPE 20 to predict VO2(max). There were no significant differences between VO2(max) values from the graded exercise tests (mean 43.9 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), s = 6.3) and predicted VO2(max) values for the perceptual ranges 9-17 (40.7 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), s = 2.2) and RPE 11-17 (42.5 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), s = 2.3) across the three trials. The predicted VO2(max) from the perceptual range 9-15 was significantly lower (P < 0.05) (37.7 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), s = 2.3). The intra-class correlation coefficients between actual and predicted VO2(max) for RPE 9-17 and RPE 11-17 across trials ranged from 0.80 to 0.87. Limits of agreement analysis on actual and predicted VO2 values (bias +/- 1.96 x S(diff)) were 3.4 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1) (+/- 10.7), 2.4 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1) (+/- 9.9), and 3.7 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1) (+/- 12.8) (trials 1, 2, and 3, respectively) of RPE range 9-17. Results suggest that a sub-maximal, perceptually guided graded exercise test provides acceptable estimates of VO2(max) in young to middle-aged sedentary males.     

Index for Volume 52 (1981)

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare fitness levels of children participating in a movement education (ME) program to Illinois fitness norms (control group). The AAHPERD Health-Related Fitness test was administered to children ages 7 through 12 during May in each of the three years, 1980–83. The skinfold measures showed that the ME children had more skinfold thickness regardless of age and gender. Scores for sit-ups and sit and reach over the three years for ME children showed that the 9- and 11-year-old ME males had more abdominal strength and 11- and 12-year-old ME females, less flexibility. Times in the mile run indicated that ME children were slower than the control group. Reference scores at the 50th and 25th percentile on the Illinois norm tables were located for each fitness measurement. These references were then used to determine the percentage of ME children who fell at or above the 50th percentile and at or below the 25th percentile. Data indicated that ME children need remediation in cardiovascular activity and reduction in subcutaneous fat.     

Item response theory and the measurement of motor behavior

Item response theory (IRT) has been the focus of intense research and development activity in educational and psychological measurement during the past decade. Because this theory can provide more precise information about test items than other theories usually used in measuring motor behavior, the application of IRT in physical education and exercise science merits investigation. In IRT, the difficulty level of each item (e.g., trial or task) can be estimated and placed on the same scale as the ability of the examinee. Using this information, the test developer can determine the ability levels at which the test functions best. Equating the scores of individuals on two or more items or tests can be handled efficiently by applying IRT. The precision of the identification of performance standards in a mastery test context can be enhanced, as can adaptive testing procedures. In this tutorial, several potential benefits of applying IRT to the measurement of motor behavior were described. An example is provided using bowling data and applying the graded-response form of the Rasch IRT model. The data were calibrated and the goodness of fit was examined. This analysis is described in a step-by-step approach. Limitations to using an IRT model with a test consisting of repeated measures were noted.     

Isokinetic knee extension and vertical jumping: are they related?

The aim of this study was to examine joint power generation during a concentric knee extension isokinetic test and a squat vertical jump. The isokinetic test joint power was calculated using four different methods. Five participants performed concentric knee extensions at 0.52, 1.57, 3.14 and 5.23 rad x s(-1) on a Lido isokinetic dynamometer. The squat vertical jump was performed on a Kistler force plate. Kinematic data from both tests were collected and analysed using an ELITE optoelectronic system. An inverse dynamics model was applied to measure knee joint moment in the vertical jump. Knee angular position data from the kinematic analysis in the isokinetic test were used to derive the actual knee angular velocity and acceleration, which, in turn, was used to correct the dynamometer moment for inertial effects. Power was measured as the product of angular velocity and moment at the knee joint in both tests. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found between mean (+/- s) peak knee joint power in the two tests (squat vertical jump: 2255 +/- 434 W; isokinetic knee extension: 771 +/- 81 W). Correlation analysis revealed that there is no relationship between the peak knee joint power during the vertical jump and the slow velocity isokinetic tests. Higher isokinetic velocity tests show better relationships with the vertical jump but only if the correct method for joint power calculation is used in the isokinetic test. These findings suggest that there are important differences in muscle activation and knee joint power development that must be taken into consideration when isokinetic tests are used to predict jumping performance.     

不同腹直肌训练动作的表面肌电信号AEMG对比分析

目的:本文旨在探讨不同动态腹直肌训练动作对腹直肌下部锻炼效果的影响,为腹直肌训练提供参考。方法:让受试者做屈腿卷腹、直腿卷腹、屈腿仰卧起坐、直腿仰卧起坐、仰卧两头起、健腹轮、下斜板仰卧起坐7种常用的徒手腹直肌锻炼动作,同时应用ME6000-16表面肌电仪对左侧腹直肌测出做每种腹直肌锻炼动作时的表面肌电信号,并对其信号的时域指标平均振幅AEMG进行对比分析。结果:屈腿卷腹动作AEMG标准化值最低为0.327±0.160;仰卧两头起AEMG标准化值最高为0.805±0.190。卷腹、屈腿仰卧起坐、俯身滚动健腹轮之间的AEMG标准化值也较低,且相互之间差异不显著。但与腹直肌AEMG标准化值较高的下斜板仰卧起坐、直腿仰卧起坐、仰卧两头起动作差异显著。结论:仰卧两头起,下斜板仰卧起坐,直腿仰卧起坐动作对腹直肌刺激程度较高。仰卧两头起的刺激程度最高,俯身滚动健腹轮对腹直肌刺激程度较低。     

The relationship between selected body composition variables and muscular endurance in women

The primary purpose of this study was to determine if muscular endurance is affected by referenced waist circumference groupings, independent of body mass and subcutaneous abdominal fat, in women. This study also explored whether selected body composition measures were associated with muscular endurance. Eighty-four women were measured for height, weight, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and abdominal skinfold thickness (SFAB) and performed 60-s sit-ups (SU) and maximal push-ups (PU) tests. Mean differences in SU and PU scores were tested across three groups based on WC as follows: WCG1 < 70 cm; WCG2 between 70 and 89 cm; WCG3 > or = 90 cm. There were no significant differences in SU and PU scores between WCG1 and WCG2. WCG3 had significantly lower SU and PU scores compared to the other groups. After adjusting for the influence of SFAB, BMI, and weight, the differences disappeared. The regression analysis revealed a two-variable (BMI and SFAB) model that accounted for the variation in SU performance. For PU, only BMI loaded into the regression model. The results of this study suggest that women with a WC > or = 90 cm have decreased muscular endurance compared to their lower WC counterparts. This difference is related to higher body masses.     

普通高校大学生体质测试总分与指标间的相关性研究--以武汉工程大学为例

本文以提取的武汉工程大学本科生体质健康测试数据为样本,通过Excel、SPSS 22.0等工具,采用单因素方差分析法、相关性分析、多元回归分析法对测试数据进行分析研究。结果显示:男女体质测试指标和派生指标BMI均与体测总分之间存在高度相关性,其中坐位体前屈、引体向上/仰卧起坐、50m指标对体质测试总分影响较大;男女生BMI指标与坐位体前屈之间没有显著性相关关系;BMI与800m/1000m之间有很强的正线性关系。研究结果表明,通过锻炼身体,降低肥胖者的BMI值,有利于提升学生体质状态,提高测试成绩。     

从大学生体质的动态变化谈大学体育改革

为了了解大学生的体质状况,本文对某大学新生的体质进行了测试,其中包括身高、体重、台阶试验、肺活量、立定跳远、握力和仰卧起坐等数据,从而发现了大学生体质的动态变化规律,据此提出了大学体育教学改革的有益对策。     

Relationships between sprinting, agility, and jump ability in female athletes

The aim of this study was to assess the relationships between various field tests in female athletes. Altogether, 83 high school soccer, 51 college soccer, and 79 college lacrosse athletes completed tests for linear sprinting, countermovement jump, and agility in a single session. Linear sprints (9.1, 18.3, 27.4, and 36.6 m) and agility tests (Illinois and pro-agility) were evaluated using infrared timing gates, while countermovement jump height was assessed using an electronic timing mat. Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficients (r) were used to determine the strength and directionality of the relationship between tests and coefficients of determination (r2) were used to examine the amount of explained variance between tests. All of the performance scores were statistically correlated with each other; however, the coefficients of determination were low, moderate, and high depending on the test pairing. Linear sprint split times were strongly correlated with each other (r= 0.775 to 0.991). The relationship between countermovement jump height and linear sprinting was stronger with the longer distances (27.4 and 36.6 m) than with the shorter distances (9.1 and 18.3 m), and showed a stronger relationship within the college athletes (r= -0.658 to -0.788) than high school soccer players (r= -0.491 to -0.580). The Illinois and pro-agility tests were correlated (r > or = 0.600) with each other as well as with linear sprint times. The results of this study indicate that linear sprinting, agility, and vertical jumping are independent locomotor skills and suggest a variety of tests ought to be included in an assessment protocol for high school and college female athletes.     

Item Response Theory and the Measurement of Motor Behavior

Abstract

Item response theory (IRT) has been the focus of intense research and development activity in educational and psychological measurement during the past decade. Because this theory can provide more precise information about test items than other theories usually used in measuring motor behavior, the application of IRT in physical education and exercise science merits investigation. In IRT, the difficulty level of each item (e.g., trial or task) can be estimated and placed on the same scale as the ability of the examinee. Using this information, the test developer can determine the ability levels at which the test functions best. Equating the scores of individuals on two or more items or tests can be handled efficiently by applying IRT. The precision of the identification of performance standards in a mastery test context can be enhanced, as can adaptive testing procedures. In this tutorial, several potential benefits of applying IRT to the measurement of motor behavior were described. An example is provided using bowling data and applying the graded-response form of the Rasch IRT model. The data were calibrated and the goodness of fit was examined. This analysis is described in a step-by-step approach. Limitations to using an IRT model with a test consisting of repeated measures were noted.     

Fatigue decreases skilled tennis performance

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of fatigue from maximal tennis hitting on skilled tennis performance. Eighteen senior county tennis players (9 males, 9 females) volunteered to participate in the study. Their mean ( - s x -macron ) age and body mass were as follows: males 20.7 - 0.9 years and 60.6 - 2.7 kg respectively, females 21.7 - 0.6 years and 71.5 - 1.8 kg respectively. The players undertook two performance tests, both against a tennis ball serving machine, on an indoor tennis surface: (1) a pre- and post-skill test of groundstrokes and service; (2) the Loughborough Intermittent Tennis Test (4 min work plus 40 s recovery) to volitional fatigue. Body mass decreased by 1.5% ( P ? 0.0001). Mean heart rates differed between rest, post-warm-up and all intermittent test values ( P ? 0.01), between the pre- and post-skill tests ( P ? 0.0001) and between bouts and recoveries ( P ? 0.01). Peak blood glucose and lactate concentrations were 5.9 mmol· l -1 (50% into the intermittent tennis test) and 9.6 - 0.9 mmol· l -1 (25% into the test) respectively. Mean time to volitional fatigue was 35.4 - 4.6 min. Groundstroke hitting accuracy decreased by 69% from start to volitional fatigue in the intermittent test ( P ? 0.01). Service accuracy to the right court declined by 30% after the intermittent tennis test. The results of this study suggest that fatigue was accompanied by a decline in some but not all tennis skills.